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Introduction

Iran has had a nuclear program since the 1950s. At the start, the program was supported by both Europe and the United States. However, changes in power and administration in the country have not only changed the purpose of the program but also its supporters. Recently, the country publicized the opening of a nuclear power plant that was completed in 2012.The plant has bee named Bushehr I reactor. It was established with assistance from the Russian government.

Prior to its establishment, Iran had been a signatory to treaties that are against the possession of nuclear weapons. These treaties were signed in 1979 and include the Biological Weapons Convention, the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty and the Chemical Weapons Convention.

Although the country has claimed that its nuclear program is peaceful, other States are disturbed by the recent developments of plans to build a second nuclear plant. The ties that Iran has to major terrorist groups such as the Hamas and Hezbollah makes it difficult for other heads of state to believe that Iran has no ulterior motive. Interestingly, majority of the Iranian people support the uranium enrichment program. This paper attempts to understand the development of nuclear technology, world view on the same and the future of nuclear technology.

Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons

This treaty was created to provide limitations on a country’s use of nuclear technology. Its main purpose can be said to have been to reduce diversion. It was enacted on July 1, 1968 and has over 190 signatory states (Conference, 2010). In the treaty nuclear weapon states and non-nuclear ones are clearly distinguished. Nuclear states cannot transfer their technology and non-nuclear ones can only conduct nuclear research for peaceful purposes (Greenblum, 2006).The treaty succeeded a number of plans that had been previously set up in an attempt to outlaw nuclear weapons. This treaty has been developed and its provisions legitimized largely owing to the United States’ support on the outlaw of nuclear weapons. By 1964, a number of countries had nuclear weapons.

The NPT rests on three principles:

• Non-proliferation

Article I states that no nuclear state shall assist a non-nuclear state to generate a nuclear weapon, neither shall it transfer nuclear weapons with the intent to encourage the manufacture or acquisition of the same (Conference, 2010). Iran has failed to comply with this principle by conducting unreported nuclear activities. The IAEA found Iran to have violated Article XII.C owing to its failure to uphold the safeguards agreement.

The UN Security Council has passed three legally binding resolutions restricting Iran’s nuclear enrichment activities. These resolutions have been passed since 2005.

• Peaceful uses

Article IV allows all parties to the treaty to generate nuclear energy for purposes that benefit the international community and that foster peace.

• Disarmament

Article VI calls for negotiations by all parties that are aimed at nuclear disarmament and cessation (Conference, 2010).

In regards to compliance, the NPT lacks a method for non-compliance. In this instance, the IIAEA is to call upon the violator to find a solution to non-compliance and ought to report any form of non-compliance to the United Nations Security Council and the Assembly.fines may be placed like suspension or curtailment, return of resources of priviledges and rights. On the other hand, a party that complies is accorded peaceful nuclear assistance.

Other provisions, there were simialrly other provisions that comprise the right of any group to terminate regional treaties to ensure that is no nuclear weapon in their regions and issuing of review conferences in five year period.

Iranian nuclear threat: The legal ground of using military force as a collective self defense by the U.S to protect its national security

The United States’ relationship with Iran was greatly damaged by the fall of the Shah’s regime in 1979 (Milani, McFaul, & Diamond, 2006). To safeguard itself, the U.S must deal with three core issues; sanctions on the development of a nuclear bomb by Iran, stop Iran’s support to terrorism and facilitate democratic change in Tehran (Milani, McFaul, & Diamond, 2006). Little effort has been made by the United States in the nuclear disarmament of Iran. With the war in Iraq and Afghanistan, the U.S administration has had no time to focus on the Iran nuclear issue. Israel and the United States have had a strained relationship since 2010. Recently, an amazing turn of events occurred when Obama and Netanyahu agreed to work together. Their decision was greatly influenced by Iran’s nuclear program which both States are against (Calabresi & Newton-Small, 2012). As Iran has accelerated its uranium-enrichment program, there is a new sense of urgency since Iran’s efforts pose a threat to the regional and global stability as a whole (Calabresi & Newton-Small, 2012).

A long term solution is the stablishment of a democratic regime in Tehran. This would help the U.S develop a strategic partnership in the region geared towards nonproliferation of nuclear weapons. So far, policies towards Iran have been passive and reactive which is probably why they have had no impact.

It is necessary to ensure that the policies in the NPT are ammended to forbid any future development of nuclear weapons. All States that are signatories to the treaty should also have a more proactive approach in the implimentation of these policies. This will help to enhance international security.

Iran’s relationship with Russia and China where nuclear energy is concerned has raised quite a number of eybrows in the international community. Mopst of the nuclear technology Iran has acquired was sourced from Russia and China.As these nations have a symbiotic relationship with Iran, it would be difficult for them, to sever ties with Iran. China relies on Iran for oil and Russia has extensive economic ties in the form of defense contracts (Greenblum, 2006).

U.S Allies in the Gulf

To handle the Iran nuclear menace, the United States will need to work together with other parties in the Gulf. As such, all alliances that it has will be crucial in determining the outcome of the Iran question. However, as far as the Iran question is concerned, many with the style of the US diplomatic approach (Saab, 2013). They feel sidelined considering the fact that they were not consulted before the U.S began holding talks with Tehran.

The Arab Gulf distrusts the Obama administration which is jeopardizing the alliance as it is. The fact that the U.S Administration has mishandled most of the crisis in the Middle East has left many of its allies wondering whether the US will abandon them to create an agreement with Tehran; a move that would jeopardize the security of these Gulf States (Saab, 2013). These concerns need t be allayed as son as possible especially because these allies are a major source of vital sources of energy (Saab, 2013).

Unlike in the past, the United States has a lot to lose. Though the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) relied on them for the supply of weapons, they can choose to enter into new agreements with other weapons manufacturers such as China, France and Korea (Shayji, 2013).It is therefore in the United State’s best interests to reassure the GCC states since without them, America stands to lose a great deal.

Iran’s contribution to terrorism

To understand why this aspect is so important, it is necessary to look at it from the US government’s perspective. The US administration is against Iran’s uranium enrichment program largely because the country is known to support some of the most notorious groups (Bowman, 2012).The United States has regarded Iran as the main sponsor of terrorism. In numerous instances, the country has been connected to terror attacks against Israelis. The US strongly feels that once the country is capable of developing more nuclear power, it would have the courage to carry out acts of terror against the U.S as well. However, such suspicions can be allayed by Iran’s past actions. Though the country has had chemical weapons for over 25 years, they have never prvided these weapons to terrorist groups (Bowman, 2012). It is likely that the same trend would be carried forward for nuclear weapons.

The threat of nuclear weapons development became real after the IAEA seals were broken in Isfahan anf Natanz (Milani, McFaul, & Diamond, 2006). The mullah’s believe that it is in Iran’s best interests to develop nuclear weapons. This is especially based on the fact that the US has not invaded North Korea simply because they have nuclear weapons. An element of neocolonialism seems to exist where the United States is the colonial power over majority of the States in the world. Being a super power, it is expected that the U.S. would feel entitled to determine matters of international security. But why should it be that the United States takes charge of the facilities that regulate nuclear energy. The economic effects would be enormous and further cement its position as a super power. Iran’s choice to conduct secret nuclear test procedures and developments reflects an ever growing anti-American sentiment in the middle east. It is a question of power. The country that controls nuclear energy essentially has the power to control the world. However, at what cost?

 

Nuclear technology

By definition, such technology relies on the reactions of atomic nuclei. Nuclear technology has been researched and developed from as far back as 1895. Major strides in this area were made from 1939-1945 (Association, 2010). There are a number of notable nuclear technologies including nuclear power, nuclear medicine, as well as nuclear weapons. The mechanism of a nuclear plant is such that uranium being used must be supercritical (overheated) to make it prone to meltdown. Constant monitoring together with a number of fail-safes must be undertaken to protect the population from radiation poisoning.

The nuclear energy produces a limitless energy resource that leads to power generation and propulsion aspects. With the use of nuclear fission with the help of uranium. It can help to sustain the world’s energy desires for a long period of time. Getting to know this technology will be of great benefit in a number of ways. However, the next generation reactors has the ability to meet the world’s energy needs for close to a millennium. There are a number of reactors that in use in addition to the main reactor types that are in use in other nations. The most common drivers for reactor advancement involve: enhanced safety, reduced cost , advanced efficiency and use as well as reduced build-time.

History of nuclear energy and nuclear technology

The history of nuclear energy has its roots with the Ancient Greek philosophers who first developed the concept that all matter consists of invisible particles known as atoms. The concept was developed further by 18^th and 19^th century scientist. In 1789, German chemist Martin Klaproth discovered uranium, naming it after planet Uranus (World Nuclear Association, 2010). In 1895, Wilhelm Rontgen discovered Ionizing radiation by passing electric current via an evacuated glass tube to produce continuous X-rays. Henri Becquerel found an ore containing uranium and radium (pitchblende) in 1896. Gamma rays were soon thereafter discovered in the pitchblende by Villard. Samuel Prescott demonstrated in 1898 the ability of radiation to destroy bacteria in food (World Nuclear Association, 2010).

By 1900, physicists has an understanding that atoms contained large amounts of energy. Ernest Rutherford, a British physicist became to be referred to as ‘the father of nuclear science’ following his major contribution and development of the theory of atomic structure. Through his famous mathematical formula, E=mc²_, Albert Einsten developed the theory explaining the correlation between mass and energy in 1905.

In 1934, physicist Enrico Fermi first discovered the capability of nuclear fusion through his experiment in which he reacted uranium atoms with neutrons to realize products much lighter than uranium. In 1942, he performed the world’s first controlled, self-sustaining nuclear reaction with uranium and control rods in the same way they are done today. The power and potential of the new technology was demonstrated in July 1945 when the United Stated performed its first nuclear bomb test in the New Mexico desert.

An increasing number of nuclear plants started to emerge in the 1950s and 1960s as safe, clean alternative to traditional energy practices. This was mainly due to the fact that a fission of a single uranium atom has the ability to produce amount of energy that is approximately 10 million times the amount realized from the combustion of a single atom of coal.

Uses of nuclear technology

There are varied uses for nuclear technology in the modern world. Rapid technological growth has seen nuclear technology become increasingly adopted in nuclear reactors, smoke detectors, gun sights and nuclear weapons. In the food and agricultural field, radioisotopes and radiation are utilized to provide food to save the millions of people around the world who are chronically malnourished and many others who die daily from hunger or hunger-related causes (World Nuclear Association, 2013). To ensure sustainable agriculture, the UN’s Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) together with the IAEA work on programs towards achieving food sustainability with the help of nuclear and related biotechnologies.

Through the technology, developing and developed countries are producing fertilizers with minimum damage to the environment. The particular isotope in the fertilizers are indicated to inform farmers on how much the plant takes up and how much is lost, thus enabling better management of the fertilizer application (World Nuclear Association, 2013). For several decades now, ionizing radiation to trigger mutation in plant breeding has been utilized, resulting in development of more than 1800 new crop varieties. Neutron or gamma radiation is usually used along with other techniques for the production of new genetic types of root and tuber crops, oil seed and cereal crops. Also, new and more resistant types of garlic, wheat, sorghum, beans, and peppers has been possible through nuclear technology. In Mali, for example, irradiation of rice and sorghum seeds that are more productive and marketable is a major activity (World Nuclear Association, 2013).

With the growing resistance of insects and pests to chemical insecticides and pesticides along with the health danger of the fungicides, nuclear technology is increasingly been utilized in insect control. Sterile Insect Technique SIT), for example, entails the rearing of large numbers of insects whose eggs are then irradiated with gamma radiation prior to hatching in order to sterilize them. These sterile males are subsequently released in plenty in the infested area, where they mate with female insects but produce no offspring. This serves to control the population on insect pests as has been the case in Argentina, Mexico, northern Chile, South America and Africa (World Nuclear Association, 2013). New aggressive SIT programs are currently being implemented in many countries by the IAEA, the FAO, and the World Health Organization (WHO).

Nuclear technologies are also being used to reduce food spoilage as a result of microbial or pest infestation and contamination especially in humid and hot climates. Use of irradiation technology is increasing to preserve such foods as grains, spices, fruits, vegetables and meat. A joint committee of the World Health Organization, FAO and IAEA adopted a universal standard in 1983 (World Nuclear Association, 2013). Increase adoption of food irradiation is also due to growing concerns over food-borne diseases and increasing international trade in foodstuffs that need to meet high standards of quality. Irradiation is also used to preserve food during space mission. Food irradiation is completely safe as it does not make the food radioactive.

The need of sustainable supply of good water for humans, animals, plants and human activities has also seen increasing adoption of nuclear technologies. Isotope hydrology techniques are used for accurate tracing as well as measurement of the amount of underground water resources. These techniques offer significant analytical tools for managing and conserving existing supplies of water. They are also useful in identifying new, renewable sources of water which enable planning and sustainable management of water resources around the world. The technologies also detect leakages in dams and irrigation channels, flow rates, dynamics of reservoirs and lakes, rivers discharges as well as sedimentation rates (World Nuclear Association, 2013). Neutron probes are being utilized to accurately measure soil moisture that enable better management of land highly affected by salinity, especially as relates to irrigation.

In the field of medicine, radiation and radioisotopes are increasingly used for identification/diagnosis and treatment/therapy of a wide range of medical conditions. Particularly in the developed world, which represent about a quarter of the total world population), the frequency of diagnostic nuclear medicine is estimated to be 1.9% of its population per year, while the frequency of therapy utilizing radioisotopes is almost one tenth of this. Across the world, over 10,000 hospitals are estimated to be currently using radioisotopes in medicine, with the USA recording 18 million nuclear medicine operations each year for its about 311 million people and about 10 million procedures in Europe’s 500 million population. The adoption of radiopharmaceuticals in diagnosis is growing at a rapid rate of over 10% per year (World Nuclear Association, 2013).

As environmental tracers, radioisotopes are increasingly used to detect and analyze pollutants considering very small amount of radioisotope are easily detectable and decayed isotopes do not form residues in the environment. As such, nuclear technologies are being adopted in such pollution problems as smog formation, sulphur dioxide contamination, and sewage dispersal from oil spills and ocean outfalls. Radioisotopes are also being used as industrial tracers in processes such mixing and flow rates of a range of materials e.g. powders, gases, and liquids to locate leaks (World Nuclear Association, 2013). They are also added to lubricating oil to assist in measuring the rate of wear of plant and engines and equipment. The tracer techniques help in checking performance of equipment and subsequently improve their efficiency that lead to significant savings in energy costs and better utilization of raw materials.

Nuclear technologies are also applicable in instruments such gauges that contain radioactive sources that help in checking levels of gases, liquids and solids. These gauges are crucial where heat, pressure, and corrosive substances e.g. molten metal or molten glass, render it difficult or impossible to use direct contact gauges. Radioisotope thickness gauges are thus utilized to make continuous sheets of materials such as paper, metal, plastic film, etc., when it is necessary to avoid direct contact between the material and the gauge. Density gauges are utilize where the automatic control of powder, liquid or solid is imports e.g. in detergent manufacture. Radioisotopes that emit gamma rays are relatively portable relative to x-rays machines and give higher-energy radiation used in checking welds of new gas or oil pipeline systems.

Other forms of radiography based on different principles such as neutron radiography or autoradiography are used to locate components not visible via other means or measure the density and thickness of materials. Decaying radioisotopes that emit a lot of energy are harnessed to power navigation satellites and beacons as well as for heart pacemakers. The US, for example, uses the decay heat of plutonium 238 to power the Cassini space probe to Saturn and the rover Curiosity to Mars (Association, The Many Uses of Nuclear Technology, 2013).

Effects of nuclear technology: positive and negative

Positive Effects

It’s cheaper to generate electricity. Even though the initial costs of setting up a nuclear plant are quite high, generating electricity is much cheaper compared to the use of gas, oil or coal for the same purpose (Maehlum, 2013). The ripple effect is the creation of base load energy thereby ensuring that there is a substitute source of energy to compliment wind and solar energy. As such, energy deficits are mitigated. Another notable benefit of nuclear energy is that it is able to create employment for the local communities living in the country. The locals are able to take up varied roles like managing the plant to working on the ground as well as offering expert advice. With the nuclear activity in place, companies and countries are able to elevate their level of competition to greater levels. This is since complex and efficient processes are utilized to meet varied needs in addition to making them easier.

Nuclear power’s connection in terms of the environment is quite notable. The use of the nuclear power makes the use of the other energies to be reduced hence saving the environment greatly. Additionally, greenhouse gases are not emitted as do other common forms of energy production. This makes energy production to be much safer and cleaner to the environment. Nuclear power is one of the most environmentally friendly fuel sources. It is known to have the least impact on the atmosphere as its emissions do not escalate the greenhouse effect.

In addition, nuclear power plants do not need to run on uranium. They can run on thorium, which is a much greener alternative (Maehlum, 2013). Nuclear energy is also sustainable considering recent developments in nuclear fusion. The intensity of nuclear energy is also an advantage since plants do not need high volumes to run efficiently unlike fossil fuels.

Negative Effects

Nuclear plants produce a lot of radioactive waste which results to harmful results in both the environment and on humans. The Chernobyl disaster led to thousands of deaths and multiple health problems which people in Ukraine are still suffering from (Maehlum, 2013).

There is no safe way to mine, store and process nuclear materials. The risk of exposure is quite high. In addition, nuclear power contributes to carbon emissions. Thought the emissions are minimal, they do exist nonetheless.

Power plants are extremely costly with price ranges of twelve to eighteen million dollars per plant. Not many countries can afford such ventures.

How Iran poses a nuclear threat

A testimony by the US director of counter terrorism and intelligence revealed a number of terrorist plots targeting U.S and Israeli foreign interests. While some were prevented, others could not be managed in time and resulted in destruction and human injury (Policy, 2012). In the past, senior Iranian government officials have been linked to acts of terrorism. Tehran has been found to be a core supporter of terrorism. This has resulted in the West carrying out diplomatic and economic sanctions in a bid to force Iran to cease its nuclear activities.

On more than one occasion, terrorist attacks originating from Tehran have been linked to high ranking Iranian government officials (Policy, 2012). Such cases have been made public whenever they resulted in investigations and convictions. Tehran has extensive ties with the Hezbollah who have taken responsibility for many acts of terrorism against the United States and Israel. An example was the 1996 bombing of the Khobar Towers which was home to American service members. The Hezbollah teamed up with Iranian operatives to carry out this attack which resulted in the death of not only American but also British, French and Saudi service members. Iran’s support of terrorist groups has been viewed as an attempt to manipulate foreign policy to suit its objectives.

The signs were there that Iran was pro-terrorism especially as far as the West was concerned. With the support of radical elements within the clerical leadership and open hostility to the West, as far back as 1989, Iran’s ties with terrorist groups can be said to have been foretold but ignored. The country’s increased efforts on nuclear technology cannot be taken lightly given the existing tensions between Iran and Israel and the U.S.

Collective self defense tactics

This right under international law allows a country to enter another state in order to safeguard its own interests and security. Such was the case in the Caroline incident in which British soldiers crossed into the United States and destroyed a ship named ‘Caroline’. The ship supplied arms to rebels in Canada[1]. Article 51 of the Charter of the United Nations[2] attempts to distinguish between individual and collective self-defense (Kunz, 1947). As terrorism continues to take on a new position in the world with terrorist groups become more radical and more extreme, it is necessary to determine how countries can defend themselves.

The question is when self-defense applies as far as international law is concerned. The principle of self-defense has been the subject of much controversy. With the International Court of Justice receiving much criticism on its interpretation of the same (Azubuike, 2011). Self-defense exists in two separate regimes: customary international law and the UN Charter. The element of collective self-defense was determined in the Nicaragua case[3] in which the ICJ held that it had jurisdiction over this case.

The use of force and arms control by the United States seems to be their only reprieve against a country that has always been at loggerheads with the United States. In December 2006[4] and March 2007,[5] the United Nations Security Council passed resolutions under Chapter VII of the UN Charter. The resolutions imposed sanctions against Iran with intent to dissuade them from further nuclear experiments (Law, 2008).

Conclusion

Nuclear power considering that it has a number if benefits as has been stated in the paper. For instance environmental safety, social satisfaction and economic upgrade. The paper has simiarly focused on the negative effects of nuclear power. This takes in regard the nations that make use of them for fighting as well as other negative activities, a good example is Iran. Considering that the huge threat that Iran poses is quite unsettling, its declaration has caused Obama and Netanyahu to combine their efforts. This is perhaps the only reason that could have brought the two heads of state together (Calabresi & Newton-Small, 2012). Despite the great risk that nuclear technology poses to global peace, it has brought together to States that never agree.

Nuclear power carries humanity’s greatest hope and greatest fear. Though it is a source of clean energy, the radioactive steam is deadly to human beings. The question is whether it is possible to strike a balance or if humanity is doomed to its own self-destruction (Brain & Lamb, 2000). A solution to this ever-growing threat is the creation of nuclear fuel banks. The United States is in the process of creating such a facility as well as creating a framework that facilitates access to peaceful nuclear technologies (Conference, 2010).

However, it is necessary for the international community to support and uphold nonproliferation for any chance of safeguyarding international peace and posterity.

 

Bibliography

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[1] R. Y. Jennings, the Caroline and Macleod Cases, 32 AM. J. INT’L L. 82 (1938).

[2] Nothing in the present Charter shall impair the inherent right of individual or collective self-defense if an armed attack occurs against a member of the United Nations, until the Security Council has taken the measures necessary to maintain international peace and security. Measures taken by members in the exercise of the right of self-defense shall be immediately reported to the Security Council and shall not in any way affect the authority and responsibility of the Security Council under the present Charter to take at any time such action as it deems necessary in order to maintain or restore international peace and security.

[3] Nicaragua v. United States of America (1986)

[4] SC Res. 1737 (Dec. 27, 2006).

[5] SC Res. 1747 (Mar. 24, 2007).