Criteria for Med/Surg Research Paper
Cover Sheet:
Center the following in the middle of your first page:
Student Name
Disease process underlined
Instructor’s Name
Date
Table of Contents:
Double spaced with page numbers for each section of the paper
Definition of Disease Process:
You must tell what the disease process for your topic is, how is it diagnosed, the course
of the disease or its’ prognosis, and the treatment. This will be the “body” of your paper
and it should be more than one paragraph. You need to get your information from more
than one source and you must give the author credit. We know that you are learning
about your disease process and that this is not your own information, and that’s all right!
But you HAVE to give the author credit. Otherwise it’s called plagiarism.
Example:
“Epilepsy is a disorder of cerebral function in which the client experiences sudden
attacks of altered consciousness, motor activity, or sensory phenomenon.
Convulsive seizures are the most common type of attack.” (White, p.633)
If you restate the information in your own words you must still give the author credit. It
is not put in quotation marks but simply written in your own words.
Example:
There may be several causes of epilepsy which may include: infection, trauma,
hypoxia, alcohol toxicity, and CVA or electrolyte imbalance. (White, p. 633)
The paper should be double spaced with 1 inch margins. Use the standard font. Paper
should be white with black ink and the pages should be numbered at the bottom center..
Signs and Symptoms:
These should be written the same as the definition of the disease process to include credit
to any of the authors that you get the information from.
Nursing Diagnosis: FROM NANDA ONLY
Listed below you will find ten body systems. You will need to rank them in priority to
the disease process that you are writing the paper about and have a nursing diagnosis for
each one. When we say “rank them in priority”, for example, if your disease is one
which impairs the lungs, then the respiratory system would rank near the top, (if not
first), for your nursing diagnoses.
The 10 systems are:
Respiratory Musculoskeletal GI Immune
Cardiovascular Endocrine Urinary Reproductive
Nervous Integumentary
Justification for each of the 10 diagnoses:
This tells us why you felt the nursing diagnosis was appropriate and why you selected it
for each of the 10 systems in the order that you did.
Examples:
Respiratory – Ineffective airway clearance related to mucous accumulation
during seizure and uncontrolled tonic-clonic muscle contraction involving
respiratory muscles.
Justification – During a seizure there is mucous accumulation, which may cause
obstruction to the airway and without an airway the client will be unable to
survive.
Cardiac – Increased cardiac output related to excitability and movements during
seizure
Justification – During a seizure a great amount of energy is expended causing the
client to have hypertension or tachycardia.
AIDS:
Immune
High risk for infection related to increased susceptibility secondary to compromised
immune system.
Justification
Since HIV destroys the body’s immune system, the AIDS patient is at a high risk for
developing hospital or community acquired infections with life threatening results.
Reverse isolation should be put into action to protect these patients, as their immune
function is so low, the common cold could be fatal.
*Punctuation and spelling are important:
Remember this is a paper that counts 10% of your final grade for the class. Most
computers have spell check and grammar check – use them. Proof read your paper
several times and ask someone else to proof-read it for you as well.
References:
You must have at least 3. You may have more, which means you have spent time doing
research for the disease process. Each reference must be given credit in the paper. You
must use at least 2 books. The other(s) may be an internet site, (but nothing from
Wikipedia), pamphlet, etc.
ibliography:
Each source must be given credit.
Example:
Book
Anderson, Douglas M., Mosby’s Medical, Nursing & Allied Health Dictionary, Sixth
Edition, Mosby Inc. 2002. p. 615.
Internet
Internet. Hc-Epilepsy. www.remedyfind.com
You must have at least one visual aid – this can be a graph, chart, handout, poster, etc.
The print or pictures must be able to be read or seen by everyone in the class (Just placing
a typed page or a small picture on a piece of poster board is not sufficient). You may use
note cards for your oral presentation but you may not stand up and read your paper word
for word. The presentation itself is part of your grade, as well. You may prepare a
power-point presentation or use the equipment in the classroom, but be sure and set up a
time prior to the day of presentations in order to make sure that everything is working
properly. (All flash drives have to be pre-approved by college IT personnel prior to being
used in computers.)
Put your report in a folder that has brads of some sort to prevent them from falling out
and getting lost. You may include pictures, graphs, etc with your paper but they should
be secured in the folder.
NO LATE PAPERS WILL BE ACCEPTED.
Breast Cancer
Breast cancer is a form of cancer, which develops from the cells of the breast. Usually, breast cancer starts off in the milk ducts/ lobules. Specifically, it starts in the inner lining. A tumor, which is malignant, could possibly spread to the other body parts. Lobular carcinoma is breast cancer that originates from the lobules. Ductal cancer, on the other hand, originates from the milk ducts. Most cases of breast cancer are reported among females. Breast cancer is ranked number one among the invasive cancers in women, across the world. Of all the female cancers, it accounts for 17%, and of the invasive cancers, it accounts for 22.9%. In addition, breast cancer accounts for 18.2% of cancer deaths, globally (Coldman & Phillips 558). This percentage includes males and females who get breast cancer.
Cases of breast cancer are high in the developed countries compared to developing nations. Several reasons can explain this disparity. One of the key factors is life expectancy. Breast cancer has been found to be more common among elderly women. Further, women from the rich nations have longer life expectancies than woman from the poor nations. Lifestyles are different from women of diverse backgrounds. Eating habits are also different for these women, yet these are all contributory factors. The National Cancer Institute reports that in the United States, 232,340 and 2,240 cases of breast cancer are reported among women and men, respectively. About 39621 deaths occur due to breast cancer, annually (Coldman & Phillips 560).
Breast anatomy
Key
1. Chest wall
2. Pectroralis muscles
3. Lobules
4. Nipple surface
5. Areola
6. Lactiferous duct
7. Fatty tissue
8. Skin
A female breast that is mature has fat, several lobules for purposes of producing milk and a connective tissue. The milk passes through milk tubes, through the breast nipple. Just like any other body part, the breast has many microscopic cells. The cells multiply, usually in an orderly manner. New cells replace the old ones that die. Ductal carcinoma, which originates from the lactiferous duct, or the milk duct, is the most common. The type that originates from the lobules is less common (Coldman & Phillips 558).
Current Development in Breast Cancer Diagnosis
3D Breast-Imaging Technique
A recent study that was published in JAMA showed that adding tomosynthesis (3D imaging-technique) to mammography (digital) was associated with a reduction of the patients who are called back for purposes of additional testing and an increase in breast cancer detection rate.
Blood test
From the University College London (UK), the researchers are currently conducting a blood test, to determine whether one can predict the probability of developing breast cancer among women. This research will soon appear in the Journal of Genome Medicine.
Zinc test
A new study suggests that it would be possible to detect the early signs of the condition (breast cancer). The test measures variations in zinc isotopes. Led by scientists and researchers from the University of Oxford (UK), the researchers put their findings in the Metallomics Journal.
Invasive versus the Non-Invasive Cancer
Invasive Breast Cancer
In this case, the cancer cells originate from their source (ducts or lobules) and invade the surrounding tissues. In such a case, there is a high possibility that the abnormal cells get to the lymph nodes. Eventually, they can get their way to the other body organs such as the liver, lungs or the bones. This process is referred to as “metastasis”. These abnormal cancer cells can move through the lymphatic system or the bloodstream to the other body parts. This can happen early or later on as the disease progresses.
Non-invasive
If a person has non-invasive form of cancer, the cancer remains in its site of origin, without breaking out. Such a situation where the cancer in the lobules, is referred to as “lobular carcinoma in-situ”, meaning it is still in its original place. In some other cases, the cancer is referred to as “pre-cancerous”, meaning that although the cells are still in their place of origin, they can eventually become invasive breast cancer.
Signs and Symptoms
Breast cancer symptoms are felt by the patient, who describes them to the physician. A symptom could be a headache, lump or pain, swelling, rash, among others. A symptom is what the patient notices. However, the first symptom that a breast cancer patient notices is thickening of the tissue around the breast. A woman may also feel a lump in the breast. Most of the lumps are, however, not cancerous. The woman should, however, ensure that the lump is checked.
The UK National Health Services asserts that women who detect the signs that are mentioned below should visit their doctor for check-up. In case a woman feels a lump in her breast, she should visit a doctor or a nurse. Pain in the breast or armpit is yet another vital sign. However, the woman should rule out any connection between such pain to her monthly periods. Another sign is pitting or even redness of the skin around the breast. In this respect, the skin could look like that of an orange. A lump/ swelling in the armpit is another dangerous sign. Thicken tissue around the breast should also be reported to a doctor. Other signs could include discharge from the nipple that could sometimes contain blood, changes in the appearance of the nipple where for instance it becomes inverted or sunken, and peeling/ flaking or scaling of the breast or the skin of the nipple.
Causes of Breast Cancer
It is not clear what it is that causes the condition. It is difficult to say why one individual would develop cancer and another one would not. There are, however, some risk factors that affect a person’s likelihood to develop breast cancer.
Old Age
As a woman becomes older, her risk of being diagnosed with breast cancer increases. Therefore, age is considered to be a major risk factor. In this case, it is evident that over 80% of women who develop breast cancer are above fifty years of age. In other words, they are post-menopause.
Genetics
Females who have relatives, who at some point in their lives developed ovarian or breast cancer, are at a higher risk of developing breast cancer. It should, however, be noted that if two close members of the same family develop the disease, it does not automatically imply that they share a common gene that puts them at a higher risk of developing the disease. Breast cancer is y a common disease and can happen to anyone. Most cancers are not hereditary. Females who are carriers of BRCA1 gene and BRCA gene are said to be at a higher risk of getting breast cancer. They are also highly likely to develop ovarian cancer. These genes can indeed, be inherited. Another gene, known as TP53 is connected to a higher risk of developing breast cancer (Amadou 450).
History of the condition
Women, who have had the condition breast cancer even though it was non-invasive, are likely to develop breast cancer again. This is in comparison to women who do not have a history of the disease.
Breast lumps
Women who have initially developed benign that are non-cancerous and breast lumps are more likely to get cancer later on at some point in their lives. Example of such breast lumps includes atypical ductal hyperplasia.
Breast tissues that are dense
Women whose breast tissues are dense tend to be at a risk of developing breast cancer.
Exposure to estrogen
Women who started their periods when they were too young or entered menopause later than usual are at a high risk of getting breast cancer. The explanation for the high risk is that their bodies are indeed exposed to estrogen for longer periods of time. Exposure to estrogen starts when the monthly periods begin, and it drops at menopause. The other risk factors include obesity, height, alcohol consumption, radiation exposure, hormone replacement therapy, nature of a person’s job and cosmetic implants (Amadou 450).
Diagnosis of Breast Cancer
Breast cancer is diagnosed through breast cancer screening. It is also diagnosed after detecting signs/ symptoms of the disease and telling the physician about them. There are several diagnostic tests that can be conducted.
Breast exam
Here, the physician checks the breasts of the physician, as he/ she checks for lumps, among other abnormalities like inverted nipples, changes in the shape of the breast and nipple discharge. The patient is asked to stand/ sit with her arms in various positions such as by the side or above the head.
Mammogram
This is a commonly used method of screening for breast cancer. If something unusual is detected through an x-ray, the doctor order for a diagnostic mammogram.
3D mammograms
3D mammograms, when combined with 2D mammograms, reduce the risk of false positives. Despite being a controversial method, 3D and 2D increase the detection rate of breast cancer.
Breast ultrasound
This scan helps doctors to determine whether the abnormality or the lump is a fluid-filled cyst or a solid mass.
Biopsy
Biopsy is where a tissue sample from an abnormal tissue (lump) are removed surgically and sent to the laboratory for purposes of analysis. In case the cells are found to be cancerous, the laboratory states the type of cancer, and the stage of the condition.
Breast MRI scan
During magnetic resonance imaging, the patient is injected with dye. The scan helps the physician to determine cancer’s extent. It helps in staging to determine the treatment options and prognosis of the patient. For proper staging, the doctor orders quite a number of tests like blood tests, chest x-ray, mammogram, bone scan, PET scan and CT scan.
Treatment Options
In treating the patient, a multi-disciplinary team is involved. The team may constitute of the oncologist, a specialist surgeon, radiologist, pathologist, reconstructive surgeon and a radiographer. The team must consider quite a number of factors, among them the type of cancer, grade and stage of cancer, overall health of the patient, sensitivity of cancer cells to hormones, age of the patient, and the patient’s preferences. The main options for breast cancer include radiotherapy, biological therapy, chemotherapy, radiation therapy and hormone therapy.
Works Cited
Amadou, Amina. “Breast Cancer in Latin America: Global Burden, Patterns, and Risk Factors.” Salud Pública De México 56.5 (2014): 547-554. Business Source Complete. Web. 23 Feb. 2015.
Coldman, A J, and N Phillips. “Breast Cancer Survival and Prognosis By Screening History.” British Journal Of Cancer 110.3 (2014): 556-559. Academic Search Premier. Web. 23 Feb. 2015.
Fisher, Stacey, et al. “Treatment Variation in Patients Diagnosed With Early Stage Breast Cancer In Alberta From 2002 To 2010: A Population-Based Study.” BMC Health Services Research 15.1 (2015): 527-542. Academic Search Premier. Web. 23 Feb. 2015.
Gibson, Lynette M., et al. “Breast Cancer Fear In African American Breast Cancer Survivors.” Journal Of Cultural Diversity 21.4 (2014): 135-144. Academic Search Premier. Web. 23 Feb. 2015.
