Abstract

The Infant mortality rate is a measure that is applied to the population so as to get its state of health. Since it is dependent on a limited number of issues and more definite to look into the health policy on a limited sense of the population leaving out others, it has not been void of criticism. A more extensive measure like the disability adjusted life expectancy has gotten more benefit as its substitute. This quite extensive amount of the population health is on however quite difficult complicated and for the poor countries that are developing, it adds a weight that would result to channeling money from more required programs to it. Under nutrition in children is quite prominent in the Sub-Saharan Africa and Southern part of Asia, it is however quite small in South Asia. Contrastingly, this part of Africa experiences the greatest numbers of child mortality and poor levels of nutrition in the two regions. The health set-up is quite vital for child mortality as well as the under nutrition children.

1. Introduction

Development is the procedure and the results that has been in place and acquired by a certain body of an individual to a certain group or an individual. Development is normally aimed at solving a certain aspect of life that with the intention of making it better (McGillivray 1991, pp. 21). A community is termed to as developing if it undergoing a series of phases and has achieved its main target. For instance the case of development in the case of poverty, the provision of land, seeds and means to irrigate the land would result to provision of food which would lead the people of the area to be able to sell their food and acquire income in addition to providing for themselves.

In 2009 the international laid its emphasis on the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). In terms of the bigger events like United Nations Millennium Development Goals Summit in September 2010 the head of governments, development specialists and other participants looked at the trends in the global and regional development. Similarly, the financial crisis that was taking a toll on the developed countries went on to impact on the developing countries. Even with these challenges, the international community is dedicated to increasing its ability in attaining the Millennium Development Goals objectives by 2015. Using various development index and information from various sources, several countries have shown how they are doing against the main targets of the Millennium Development Goals; hunger, child mortality, education and poverty amongst others.

The Millennium Development Goals offers a better view of the development of the countries in meeting the targets. One is able to look into the performance tendency for a particular year across an MDG indicator. The indicator now involves a comparison of year on year transformation tendency. The indicators that are applied show the development of every country.

The indicators for the Millennium Development Goals are quite vital quantitatively as opposed to qualitatively (Nwonwu, 2008, pp. 38). In reference to the Association for the Development of Education in Africa, these indicators focus on the quantifiable matters and do not include several quantitative and analyzed factors.

2. Development Indicators

Development indicators offer a collection of standard indicators. The indicators are subdivided into the social and economic indicators. The social indicators deal with the quality of life of a person in a specific region, while the economic indicators are more concerned in the wealth of people in a certain area. These development indicators are quite vital in classification of countries in reference to their development; there is the MEDC which stands for the more economically developed country while the LEDC which stands in for the Less economically developed country (Clarke & Parris 2011, pp. 1-2). The variation that exists in terms of development is the development gap. With several indicators to show development, this paper will focus on the infant mortality rate.

A general measure of health of the population is significant in making comparisons of the health statusof a certain population in a certain time period or between populations at a certain point in time (Reidpath & Allotey, 2003). It allows comparisons of the health systems and programs and may bring to light populations that require a certain form of attention from the health services.

2.1 Infant Mortality Rate (IMR)

Infant mortality rate is the probability, in terms of rate per 1000 live births, of a child being conceived in a certain year not being able to reach the age of one if done according to the present age-based mortality rates. The infant mortality rates for varied ages of people as well as holistic mortality indicator are quite important indicators of health standing of a country. Considering that the incidence and prevalence mortality rates are normally not accessible, mortality rates are more often applied to acquire the numbers of populations that are at risk. These indicators are more often applied to show a comparison in the socioeconomic development in several countries.

The infant mortality rate or development index is composed of three indicators that lay on the wellbeing of the child. The indicators that are selected are done considering that they are easy to access, common to comprehend and evidently indicative of the state of being of the child (Save the Children, 2008, pp. 5). The three indicators are;

There is health: the under-five mortality rate (the likelihood of death occurring between the time of conception and five years of age, normally represented on a 0-340 death scale in every 1000 living conceptions). There is also nutrition, where the percentage of the children below five years of age or more or less below the expected weight (Misselhorn 2008, pp. 51). Finally, there is education where the percentage of children of the primary school brackets is not involved in schools.

These indicators are measured through the calculation of the average score between them for every period in focus, stating that they all have a play in the index scores. Considering that this information is not acquired every year, they are categorized into three periods and made accessible to several countries in the first period, other countries in the second period and lastly other countries in the third period. More and more coverage for every country shows an enhancement in the collection of information. The countries are then ranked according to the scores they have acquired. A low score represents a limited level of a child being deprived while on other hand; a high level shows a great level of a child being deprived and is poor (World Bank 2011). A reading of zero would state that each and every child below the age of five years of age is well nourished and that all of them involved in education. On the other hand, a score of 100 shows that every children below the age of five are not in school and are dying at a great rate; a rate of 340 per 1000 live births.

2.1.1 The under-five mortality rate (U5MR)

The under-five mortality rate shows the likelihood of a child conceived in a certain time of the year dying before reaching a certain age of five, question to the present age-based mortality rate. Considering that information on disease incidence and prevalence are more often not accessible, mortality rates are hence applied to note the vulnerable populations (UNDP, 2011, pp. 41). Complicated estimations have brought about the need to constantly revise the technique for acquiring the under-five mortality rate data.

With the global trend reducing, the whole world is set to meet its Millennium Development Goal of decreasing the under-five mortality by 2015. Africa contributes half of the deaths below five years of age. This shows that Africa has to put in place stringent efforts so as to limit its high numbers of mortality deaths. Though it is a big challenge for Africa with the immense poverty and poor governance it is attributed to, measures are being put in place by the United Nations to reduce the high numbers.

2.1.2 Method of Computation

The techniques applied to compute the infant mortality rate relies on the form of information that is there. Information is acquired from vital registration systems, model registration systems population census and home surveys (UNICEF 2005). When the information that is acquired using the vital registration system is of good quality, the infant mortality rate can be approximated through monitoring the live births at specific sets of time and age after conception.

The major sources of information on mortality are significant systems and direct or indirect approximates depending on model surveys or censuses. A comprehensive registration system reaching at least 90 percent of the happenings in the population, this is the paramount source of age-related mortality information. Where dependable age-based information is acquired from, life expectancy at conception is directly approximated from a life table made from age-based mortality information. The direct technique applies the birth history of women when conceiving and issues the probability of death before reaching age one for the ones who were born alive in women in age brackets of conception. This technique needs to have the date of birth, survival status and date of death. This may be acquired in vital registration systems and household surveys that acquire the whole birth history from these women. The histories compose several questions of every child conceived in her life period, as well as the date the child was conceived, if he or she is alive and if dead, the age is given.

However, important registration systems are not that common in developing countries. It is hence that approximations are made from model surveys or acquired through application of indirect approximation methods to registration, census or survey information. Survey information is bound to evoke errors and surveys approximating infant deaths need huge samples considering that households which conception has taken place in a certain year is not primarily pre-acquired for sampling. The indirect approximates depend on model life tables that are not proper for population in question. Considering that life expectancy at conception is approximated using infant mortality information and sample life tables for several developing countries, the same dependability concerns arise for this indicator. Extrapolations that are based on obsolete surveys are not put to use in observing changes in the health status or for comparison issues. The indirect technique applies the Brass technique that changes the proportion of dead children ever conveyed by women in the 15-19, 20-24 to 45-49 age brackets into approximates of probability of dying before reaching a stated age. This technique has the assumption that the age of the mother will act as the proxy for the age of the children she conceives and for what period of time they have been left vulnerable to the risk of death. This technique needs less information; it however needs model life tables to change the information for the age pattern of mortality in a whole population. Getting access to a proper model life table is quite hard considering that some of them are acquired from real life experiences.

Approximations of infant and mortality may not be consistent in the source that is applied as well as the technique in an allocated time and place. The years used for the acquired approximates tend to not be consistent depending on the country, resulting to strain in making comparisons with time. To create an infant mortality approximates that are comparable and guarantee constancy in all the approximates by different organizations, the World Health Organization, United Nations Population Division and other research agencies have come up and applied statistical techniques which applies all accorded data to do away with the contrasts. The method applies weighted least squares technique to put in place a regression line to correlation that exists between mortality rates and their stated dates and extend the tendency to the current time.

Infant and child mortality rates are noted to be quite higher for the male child in comparison to the girl child in countries that have low parental gender preferences. Child mortality acquires the impact of gender bias in a better manner than infant mortality, considering that malnutrition and medical involvements are quite significant in children. In the countries that record high levels of female child mortality like South Asia, the female girl child is not accorded equal access to resources as the boy child is (UNICEF 2011; World Bank 2010). The child mortality rate is quite contrasting to the infant mortality rate and under-five mortality rates considering the variation in techniques and stated year. Information on child mortality is approximated directly form surveys. Moreover, the approximations made from the health surveys on population and the approximations that have been acquired from the multiple indicator cluster surveys have been included in the table and they involve the five years after the survey.

The rates for adult mortality and endurance till the age of 65 have originated from life tables. The adult mortality rates have grown higher in several countries more so in the sub-Saharan Africa in the years 1995-2000 and 2000-2005 as well as in other countries notably in Europe and Asia. In Sub-Saharan Africa, the high level noted is as a result of HIV/AIDs-based mortality and it influences the male and female, but it is noted more so in female. In terms of other continents for instance Europe and Central Asia the causes are quite varied; high level of smoking, poor dieting which contains high levels of fat, high level of alcohol drinking, being in extreme stressful situations that relate to economic changes and tend to have more impact on men.

The measure in terms of percentage of survival to the age of 65 shows the child and adult mortality rates. Just as in life expectancy, the adult and child mortality is a synthetic size that is reliant on the present age-based mortality rates. It brings out the view that also in countries where mortality is great; some form of current birth will live above the life expectancy at birth, on the other hand in low mortality states well over 90 percent will meet the 65 years age bracket.

3. Conclusion

The infant mortality rate is quite valuable and relatively cheap form of indicator of population health. Its method of explanation is to some extent similar to other forms of indicators. This however does not deprive the significance of the epidemiological information concerning the health of a stated population. Several processes, more the ones that can be disaggregated using age, gender, health status, socioeconomic level among others, will be quite significant for planning. Conversely, with limited resources a not difficult measure of population health is needed, then the countries with infant mortality rates higher than 10 would appear to be using safe infant mortality rate as the indicator.

References

United Nations Development Programme, 2011, Assessing Progress in Africa toward the Millennium Development Goals: Goal 4: Reduce Child Mortality, MDG Report 2011, pp. 41, viewed 9 April 2012, <http://www.undp.org/content/dam/undp/library/MDG/english/UNDP-ADFB-MDG_2011.pdf>

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UNICEF, 2011, Millennium Development Goals Indicators: the official United Nations site for the MDG Indicators, viewed 9 April 2012, <http://mdgs.un.org/unsd/mdg/Default.aspx>

McGillivray, M, 2008, ‘What is Development?’ in International Development: issues and challenges, Palgrave Macmillan, New York, pp. 21.

Misselhorn, M, 2008, Measurement of poverty, undernutrition and child mortality, Peter Lang, Frankfurt, pp. 51.

Nwonwu, F, 2008, Millennium Development Goals: achievements and prospects of meeting the targets in Africa, African Books Collective, Pretoria, pp. 38.

Reidpath D, & Allotey, P, 2003, ‘Theory and methods infant mortality rate as an indicator of population health’, Journal of epidemiology & Community Health, vol. 57, no.5, pp.344-346, viewed 9 April 2012, <http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1732453/pdf/v057p00344.pdf>

Save the Children, 2008, The Child Development Index, Holding governments to account for the children’s wellbeing, Save the Children UK, <http://www.unicef.org/socialpolicy/files/child-development-index.pdf>

World Bank, 2011, 2011 World Development Indicators, The Green Press Initiative, Washington.

World Bank, 2010, World Development Indicators 2010, World Bank Publications.

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