Introduction to Psychology
1. Overall, males and females have similar intellectual capacity. However, males are usually better at spatial tasks than females, while females generally perform better on verbal tasks. Find a second article and discuss in your own words, the possible reasons for these differences.
Based on various research findings, differences exist on the abilities of men and women to perform different tasks. Men have been found to perform better in tasks that require reasoning, judgement and physical manipulation. Contrarily, while women are generally poor in performing these tasks, they have been found to outdo men in tasks that require verbal communication. The greater visuospatial skill associated with the male gender has been found to contribute in greater performance in various life practices, including the ability to play games that require angular judgement such as soccer, baseball and cricket (Cherney, 2008). There have been found to be various causes for these differences, on which this article will be based.
In the early child development, the boy child uses various toys and gadgets that require performance, a practice that does not characterize females. The boy child therefore grows with the ability to make judgements involving verticality and horizontality, which is translated in all life aspects, as he becomes a man. On the contrary, the girl child is skewed towards performing such tasks as tending to dolls, which gives her tendering skills. As she grows, she has better communication skills than the male child.
Another factor favouring the boy child, giving him better visuospatial skills is the use of video games; especially the 3D games. The ability to perform in these games is resultant of frequent practice. Considering the fact that boys will tend to play these games for the better part of their development to teenage and past teenage, the skill duplicates and consequentially, the boy gains excellence (Cherney, 2008). This kind of skill is translated in the ability to make arithmetic calculations efficiently and throughout the life of the child; it is possible to pursue courses that require mathematical ability. It can therefore be derived that the kind of activities that a child engages in during development greatly determines communication and visuospatial skills.
2. There are three main parent-child attachment styles that are demonstrated by the observational experiment called the “Strange Situation”. Find a second article and compare and contrast the parental and child behaviours commonly attributed to each attachment style.
The relationship between parents and infants is different based on the different genders. While fathers and mothers are found to be equally interactive with sons, fathers were found to be more responsive to their sons than the mothers were. Mothers were also found to be more sensitive to the daughters more than the fathers were. The daughters’ attachment in relation to security was similar for both parents, while the interaction between the son and the mother was not similar as that for the father (Inzlicht, 2002). Analysing the situation further revealed that the fathers were more sensitive to sons that had an insecure relationship with their mothers. This kind of interactive relationship is sufficient in making the conclusive account that gender is relevant for parent-infant relationships, determined on the reaction to insecurity matters on the infant (Fonagy, 1996).
One factor that makes the same-sex interaction easier is the fact that the parent, at one time of development had had to experience the same or similar difficulties as those that a child wishes to have addressed. For this, it is more likely that a father understands security matters that may affect the son, and in a similar manner, a mother is likelier to understand the problems of her daughter than the father is. One relevant example is a case whereby a daughter undergoes psychological torture from an outsider, for instance, a senior schoolmate. Whenever this issue is brought out in the presence of both parents, the mother will be more responsive, and readier to seek detail to have the case solved. This case translates in the same manner for the male gender.
3. Personality traits change over the life course of an individual. Find a second article and critically discuss this statement in your own words.
In growth, various characteristics make one individual distinctive from the rest. Personality traits are always different over a period of development from one age group to the next. In adulthood, it is therefore human nature that character traits will be completely varied from those observed during childhood (Luciano, 2009). Resultant of this is a change in the manner in which people relate. For instance, childhood friendship will not be carried on throughout two people’s lives due to change of interests.
Contrary to the fact that personality traits are vulnerable to change as humans are open systems, one thing is retained throughout one’s life time; an individual’s personality. This is responsible for a person’s vulnerability to regaining traits that show up at a certain stage of life (Fonagy, 1996). Change of environments is responsible for various changes observable in an individual’s traits. In a favourable environment, one will be receptive to other individual, as long as they relate well. Similarly, in an unfavourable environment, an individual will be hostile to strangers whereby those he/she lives express enmity.
A general characterizing factors of most humans is change for the better, especially in young adulthood. This can be attributed to the urge to exhibit maturity, which characterizes general human. For this to be possible, a young adult will seem to adopt behavioural practices that would make him/her regarded as a kid and embrace those that characterize the adults they admire (Fonagy, 1996). In adulthood, these traits will tend to be retained as one grows into maturity, hence a change from childhood to maturity.
4. Psychological health of sole mothers is commonly poorer than it is for partnered mothers. Find a second article and discuss in your own words, the possible reasons for this phenomenon.
The impact of sole parenthood is the effect on the psychological health associable with this kind of parenthood in comparison to partnered parenthood. Various factors are responsible for the poor health associated with single mothers. Among these is financial strain. This is more evident for mothers who do not get sufficient money from the money they earn, for lack of sufficient time to work for salary. More influential is a case whereby a mother’s age lies in the bracket of 20-27. This age group is vulnerable to feelings of wanting to cause self-harm, and it is the age group in which cases of suicide are most frequently observed.
Another cause for poor psychological health that characterizes sole mothers against partnered mothers is psychological breakdown. A mother will tend to be affected by the feelings associable with a breakout, frequent thoughts of failing to move on with life causing psychological torture. This reduces the ability for a mother to attend her children as well as it would be with the husband. Some single mothers will also tend to have feelings of hatred towards the children who have physical similarities with their fathers, who may have caused agony to the mother before break up. This is resultant of obstinate thoughts regarding the father, which becomes very difficult to eliminate in mind.
The parenting responsibility is also a causative factor that makes most mothers feel burdened and lose determination to meet all the needs of their children. This also causes poor psychological health, leading to extreme cases of stress and depression. Conversely, partnered mothers will find it easy to deal with all responsibilities associated with parenting, and will find it easy to meet all the expectations of a parent, for the reason that the father will play his role in raising a child.
5. Cognitive ability commonly declines in old age. Find a more recent article and discuss the environmental and biological factors that have positive and negative influences on cognitive aging.
Ability to carry out activities that require cognitive reasoning varies in different ages. This worsens as one acquires old age. One of the factors that cause this is the disability to make quick judgments, which is associable with old age. This is contrary to the skill which characterizes young age, such as ability to play video games; responsible for increased ability to make judgment on such factors as distance, angle and arithmetic reasoning (Roberts, 2009).
Various environmental and biological factors also influence the ability to make cognitive reasoning.
Positive effects of old age on cognitive reasoning are mainly associated with experience, since old individuals have had to make cognitive decisions throughout their life. However, various negativities are brought about by old age. The physical differences of the old reduce the ability to carry out activities that involve bodily skill. The eyesight, which automatically reduces performance in old age, reduces the ability of an old individual to make the appropriate visual judgment (Hopwood, 2011). Similarly, shaky hands will reduce the accuracy with which an old individual can manipulate an object accordingly. The environmental factors that affect people in old age and their cognitive ability include the activities they engage in, and the accurateness required to carry out these activities (Allerhand, 2009).
A retired individual will not be expected to make any tough decisions, and the simple activities he engages in will only require the basic kind of reasoning. The resultant effective is depreciation in cognitive skill, as neither the mind nor the body are involved in frequent practice (Hopwood, 2011). The society places little importance in the engagement of people in serious decision-making. These individuals will therefore have most of the activities exclusively done for them, reducing cognitive ability.
References
Cherney, I. D. (2008). Mom, let me play more computer games: They improve my mental rotation skills. Sex Roles, 59, 776-786.
Inzlicht, M. (2002). Threatening intellectual environment. New York: Williams College
Steele, H., Steele, M., & Fonagy, P. (1996). Associations among attachment classifications of mothers, fathers, and their infants. Child Development, 67, 541-555. .
Sarah J. Schoppe-Sullivan. Attachment and Sensitivity in Family Context: The Roles of Parent and Infant Gender.
Luciano, M., Gow, A. J., Harris, S. E., Hayward, C., Allerhand, M., Starr, J. M., & … Deary, I. J. (2009). Cognitive ability at age 11 and 70 years, information processing speed, and APOE variation: The Lothian Birth Cohort 1936 study. Psychology and Aging, 24(1)
Roberts, B. W., & Mroczek, D. (2008). Personality trait change in adulthood. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 17, 31-35. Faculty of Communication, Health and Sciences PSY1101 9
Hopwood, C. J., Donnellan, M., Blonigen, D. M., Krueger, R. F., McGue, M., Iacono, W. G., & Burt, S. (2011). Genetic and environmental influences on personality trait stability and growth during the transition to adulthood: A three-wave longitudinal study. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 100(3)
Loxton, D., Mooney, R., & Young, A. F. (2006). The psychological health of sole mothers in Australia. Medical Journal of Australia, 184, 265-268.
Robinson, E. (2009). Sole-parent families: Different needs or a need for different perceptions?. Family Matters, (82), 47.
Anstey, K. (1999). How important is mental activity in old age? Australian Psychologist, 34, 128-131.
Luciano, M., Gow, A. J., Harris, S. E., Hayward, C., Allerhand, M., Starr, J. M., & … Deary, I. J. (2009). Cognitive ability at age 11 and 70 years, information processing speed, and APOE variation: The Lothian Birth Cohort 1936 study. Psychology and Aging, 24(1)
