Jackson’s Presidency: 1828-1836
Jacksonian Democracy expressed itself in many ways. One way was through reform movements. The years 1830 to 1850 are sometimes called the Age of American Reform. In this lecture we will seek to understand why so many people involved themselves with intentional reform movements over societal problems such as drinking, prostitution, and slavery). We will also consider what overall impact those reforms had on American history. It is not a stretch to purport that the shape of our modern institutions—schools, hospitals for the mentally ill, prisons, etc.—is a legacy of this period. Granted, the later Progressive movement of the early 20th century refined and brought government intervention into these movements, but they had their beginning during this time period.
American Reform – Why Now?
First, why? Why at this particular time in history? Why didn’t this reforming impulse come earlier? One answer might be that the era of Jackson (he was president from 1828 to 1836) brought on a greater participatory democracy than the country had ever seen. It is true that with the emergence of universal manhood suffrage a sense of greater participation in national life followed. Many even saw this greater egalitarianism as a natural continuation of the gains of the Revolution.
• Participatory Democracy
• Universal Manhood Suffrage
• Maturing Enlightenment Philosophy
Some have argued that the maturing of Enlightenment Philosophy during this time called for the rejection of things like the inevitability of poverty and other social ills. And since Enlightenment thought does not stress man’s sinfulness per se one can see how thoughtful reflection within the parameters of this philosophical system would tend to focus on man’s ability to improve more and more.
Religious Impulse: Unitarianism (Liberalism) and Revivalism (Evangelicalism)
A major impulse that drove American Reform was religious. Two particular expressions of faith informed these 19th century movements. One was liberalism, more specifically Unitarianism—a movement especially in New England that, among other things, denied the Trinity and man’s sinfulness. The other was Evangelicalism – more specifically Revivalism born of what is called the 2nd Great Awakening—which had its own departures from orthodoxy.
First let’s look at Unitarianism. A New England minister named William Ellery Channing (1780-1742) was the leading Unitarian of his day. He stressed in his preaching (and this is a common tenet of Unitarianism) man is innately good. He said that the purpose of Christianity was “the perfection of human nature.” Central to this view is a denial of original sin. If man is not a sinner and he is naturally good, then if follows that he is perfectible. Many Unitarians, especially in New England, got involved in reform movement based on this premise of man’s perfectibility.
Unitarianism (a form of liberalism)
⁃ New England
⁃ Denial of Trinity
⁃ William Ellery Channing (1780-1842)
⁃ Denial of imputation of original sin
⁃ Man is basically good and perfectible
⁃ “perfection of human nature”
Evangelical Revivalism, especially as it manifested itself within certain movements of the 2nd Great Awakening, had a powerful impact on American reform—possibly the most powerful. The 2nd Great Awakening was not confined to one place. It was as varied in geography as it was in class. Awakenings broke out at Yale University in the early part of the century under the preaching of that institutions president, Timothy Dwight but also in the Cane Ridge backcountry of Kentucky under men like Peter Cartwright and James McGreedy.
⁃ Evangelical Revivalism
⁃ 2nd Great Awakening
⁃ Wide geographic and class appeal
⁃ Timothy Dwight – Yale
⁃ Peter Cartwright and James McGready – Cane Ridge, KY
Charles Finney and the “New Measures’
⁃ Father of Modern Revivalism
⁃ Height of Preaching Career
⁃ Oberlin College
⁃ Lectures on Revivals (1835)
⁃ New Measures: Alter Call / Anxious Bench
But the most important figure of the 2nd Great Awakening was Charles Finney (1792-1875). He has been called the “Father of Modern Revivalism.” After studying law from 1818 to 1821, experienced a sudden conversion. By 1824 the Presbyterian denomination issued him a license to preach. The height of Finney’s revivalist career was between 1824 and 1835. Finney was later a professor and President of Oberlin College. In 1835 he published his famous Lectures on Revivals in which he sets forth a prescription for having a revival–a sort of “how to” book on revivalism. This work is still widely read and used today.
Finney was known for introducing what were called “New Measures” in his revivals. For example, he is credited by some with institutionalizing the now common alter call. Prior to Finney, it was very rare to have a segment of the service specifically set aside to call people forward for spiritual counsel. He placed what was called an “anxious bench” at the front where those who needed prayer or simply needed to meditate on their spiritual need would come. Finney was heavily criticized for his new measures. One reason behind these criticisms was the belief by some that Finney placed too much emphasis on human ability in salvation.
Perfectibility
⁃ Utopianism
⁃ John Noyes and the Oneida Community
The influence of both the Unitarians and the Finney Evangelicals played a key role in initiating and carrying out all sorts or reform in the 19th century. The Unitarians believed that man was perfectible because he was basically good. The Finney evangelicals certainly did not take it that far, but in the main they also believed in a theoretical perfectibility. Man’s perfectibility or at least his great potential for positive change, was the principal impulse toward reform in America.
Finney’s revivals seemed to influence some in this direction. One example of this is the Oneida community in New York State. John Noyes was converted in a Finney Revival and in his subsequent study of Scripture he concluded that Christ had already returned and that in order for Christ to set up his earthly kingdom, people had to stop sinning. He decided that he would contribute his part to the effort by setting up a community where
