The R.E.A.D.Y Program and Crossroads Tour Program
The R.E.A.D.Y Program and Crossroads Tour Program
Review of Related Literature
This proposed study on the comparison of the Richland County, Educating, and Deterring Youth (R.E.A.D.Y.) program and the Crossroads Tour program aim to compare the programs efficacy and its psychological effects to students with problem behavior and the program aspects that needs to be improved and developed. The present review of related literature discusses the problem of juvenile delinquency and how it has affected society and the costs associated with the correction and institutionalization of the juvenile delinquents. The review also focuses on the different programs that have been implemented to help juvenile delinquents deal with their psychological, emotional and behavioral issues. A section on alternative intervention programs for juvenile delinquents is also included to provide background on the intervention program that is examined in this study. The purpose of the review is to determine how juvenile delinquency has been studied and how it was studied to identify the gaps in the literature and guide the proposed study.
History of Juvenile Detention Centers
In the early days of United States of America, discipline and acceptable behaviors conducts were left as sole responsibility of parents. However, with increasing urbanization, it came to a point where parents could no longer tame behavior patterns in their children. This condition called for the attention of both the public and the society. In this regard, the government could no longer tolerate their behaviors thus juveniles were also imprisoned just like adults (CJCJ, 2011). On this note, the largest urban by then; New York, began incarceration of juveniles after the establishment of then state’s prison in 1797 (CJCJ, 2011). However, since this program was not ethical enough to rehabilitate these juveniles, a separate plan was proposed to ensure that juveniles are detained in separate setting from the adults’ prisons. This was further reinforced by various efforts from associations and the public as well. As a result, in 1824, these pressures made the national assembly of New York to pass an agreement on the establishment of House of Refuge specifically to handle emerging cases of juvenile delinquency (CJCJ, 2011).. By the year 1840, history reveals that up to 53 houses had been built at different points within New York. These houses were also to serve poor children and orphans with a common capacity of 200 people if not for the New York one that could accommodate up to 100 at one instance (Bingaman, 2011). But since the rate of juvenile cases were on the increase, these detention houses started experienced serious congestions; a condition that was associated with child abuse among themselves as well as sanitary concerns. This necessitated adoption of new approach in detaining the juveniles. On this note, training schools for victimized children were to be developed so as to focus on training them while detained.
This concept, according to Bingaman (2011), could help in deterring the juveniles’ anti-social behaviors. Consequently, in 1847, Massachusetts established the first boys’ training school that was entirely funded by the government. This was then followed by the establishment of Girls training school in 1856 (Bingaman, 2011). In 1899, the Cook County in Illinois developed the first juvenile court. From this concept, all states also considered establishment of such courts; a fact that had been fully adopted by 1925. In all these juvenile courts, there was a British principle being used; “parens patriae” which perceive the state as an equal parents to children whose parents did not give adequate attention, supervision and care (Bingaman, 2011). However, there were perceptions that juvenile judicial system was not effective as expected by the public. These concerns led to the adoption of tighter detention conditions thus increasing the number of detention centers (Bingaman, 2011). Therefore tracing it from historical times, it is told that the current juvenile detention centers seen were developed from old training schools.
However the 20th century trends in Juvenile matters reports that states prefer outsourcing private services in the operations of juvenile detentions. In addition, there were quite a number of establishments in the 20th century that worth being mentioned. To start with, in December 1992, Casey foundation launched JDAI program that aimed at reducing the number of juveniles held in detention (Roffe, 2010). Similarly, in November 1993, Rutherford County established its juvenile detention center due to bed difficulties they realized with Middle Tennessee. Besides this, Campbell County also opened its regional detention center in Newport. According to the 2006 national report on detention centers, OJJDP shows that California leads the whole world in the number of juveniles in detention (16,782) then followed by Florida with 8,208 juveniles in detention.
Risk Factors of Juvenile Delinquency
Literature on juvenile delinquency have established that juvenile delinquency does not occur in a vacuum, instead, delinquents exhibit behaviors on a multidimensional level that implicates the interaction between the individual and the social systems that they move in (Borduin, 1999). This would mean that even before the adolescent have committed a crime, he or she have had behaviors that is indicative of underlying problems and predisposes them to act out and commit criminal acts. Recent research have identified the most reliable predictors of juvenile criminal activity which include adolescent traits and characteristics and behavior patterns within the individual, family, peer, school, and community (Hawkins et.al, 1998). Table 1 provides a brief discussion of the risk factors for each social system.
From: Hawkins et.al (1998)
Environmental Factors
In this risk factor, research has shown that children are normally affected by what they really are exposed to in the environment. In this regard, it is argued that children who are exposed to environment with increased violence, poverty, crime, and high rate of employment later develop delinquent behaviors (Hawkins and Catalano, 1992). Based on psychological findings, deviant behaviors witnessed in such juveniles are just due to emotional reactions beyond their understanding. Similarly, if the environment from which the child is brought up has drugs or allows free movement of drugs then the juveniles are at higher risks of adopting the use of drugs that finally leads to delinquent behaviors (Elliot, 1997).
Community Factors
It is ever the responsibility to ensure that as the child pass through various stages of development from adolescence stage, to teen’s stage then finally to adulthood stage. In this regard, if a community fails to ensure this due then children stand high risks of adopting delinquent behaviors (Hawkins and Catalano, 1992). For instance, if the community has a weak social system, administration system and economic system then the juveniles will be more prone deviant behaviors. This would mean that such communities will be not adequately address the issues of unlawful acts hence children get better opportunities to copy the behaviors. On the other hand, the juveniles, once realized that their communities are not economically empowered with facilities, they would easily involve themselves in crime and other unlawful activities in order to earn a living (Pauline, 2010). In addition, it has been proved that there will be drug prevalence, lack of recreational opportunities, lack of quality education, and availability of weapons. From all these factors, juveniles will be less self-confident and develop poor social that finally contributes to their violent behaviors (Lipsey and Derzon, 1998).
Family Factors
Family forms the smallest social unit from which a child gets all developments to fit in the future society. However, there are some factors that if not properly addressed during the development of these children then can lead to serious delinquent conducts. To start with lack of proper parental care can pose serious risks to delinquent behaviors (Hawkins and Catalano, 1992). In this regard, researches have shown that child neglect and abuse can really create anxiety in children that finally develop to deviant behaviors. Similarly, poor relationship between the child and parent can lead to poor communication thus making the child develop poor interaction with the parents (Pauline, 2010). In such cases, the child will not be free to solicit solutions to his problems from the parents. Consequently, the child will be exposed to the external solutions that will only expose him to delinquent conducts. On the other hand, poor family background, that cause divorce, conflicts, harsh disciplinary actions, poor parental supervision have also been reported to facilitate juvenile violence and delinquent behaviors (Lipsey and Derzon, 1998)..
School Factors
While the child is at school, various researches have shown that some school rules and policies tend to fuel juvenile delinquency instead of molding the children’s behaviors. In this regard, factors like corporal punishments, suspensions and expulsion have shown negative behaviors patterns among the children who perceive violent reactions as the best way to nurse their anger when offended at schools (Pauline, 2010). Similarly, poor academic performance is associated with juvenile delinquency. On this note, whenever a child is a not capable of performing, they normally loose interest with life that makes them be more prone to developing psychological strains that finally push them to violent behaviors (Hawkins, Laub &Lauristen, 1998). In addition, the practice of bullying students in these institutions have also contributed to increased delinquent behaviors in children who normally continue with the culture, which they perceive as normal even when they are already out of school (Lipsey and Derzon, 1998).
Individual Factors
In this factor, various research findings have found that the delinquent behaviors seen in youth normally come from various physiological, genetic, and other biological body processes (Pauline, 2010). These have led to poor development of cognitive abilities and neurological processes. In this regard, factors such as poor mental ability, verbal ability, low IQ, increased pee competition, low birth weight, neurophysiologic complications, hormonal abnormalities, poor problem solving abilities and neurotransmitter abnormalities can greatly lead to juvenile delinquency (Hawkins, Laub &Lauristen, 1998).
Closely related to this is the individual’s health factor. On this note, juveniles have been at high risks of delinquent behaviors since the current global scientists have never come up with proper skills and resources to diagnose these mental or physiological complications. As a result, juveniles just involve themselves in unlawful acts due to reasons that are beyond their individual control. On the other hand, a child can just be born with anti-social or aggressive characters that are closely tied to delinquent conducts. On the same note, the notion of being a male child; the choice to use drugs and the individual choice to watch violent TV programs are also potential factors that can lead to violent and other delinquent behaviors in youths (Lipsey and Derzon, 1998). Finally, scientists, after thorough researches, argue that children who experience complications during their births are more exposed to risks of developing deviant and brutal characters (Mark & James 1998).
Drug factors
It has been found that drugs use contributes to the majority of the current delinquent behaviors witnessed in juveniles (Hawkins, Laub &Lauristen, 1998). To make it worse, these children start to use these drugs at very early ages that lead to strong addiction. However, it is also been reported that at their ages, juveniles can still not meet the costs of these expensive drugs. Consequently, when they are pushed by strong instincts of addiction, they normally have no alternative a part from engaging in robbery or other unlawful activities in order to get money that can help them get such drugs (Pauline, 2010). On the other hand, drugs are believed to cause changes in mental processes and emotions. In this regard, juveniles find it easy for them to engage in violent actions due to the unstable state of their minds and emotions.
Closely linked to this is peer factor. In this risk factor, juveniles who unfortunately lack positive peers normally end up in bad peer groups, who might have prior exposure to violence, prostitution, robbery and rebellion among other (Lipsey and Derzon, 1998). As a result, interacting with such group of deviant peer would also expose the juveniles to higher risks of adopting delinquent behaviors. In addition at times the juvenile may encounter peers with anti-social behaviors. This would make them develop weak social ties that researches have also linked with delinquent conducts. Finally, researches reveal that children whose mothers smoke or use some drugs while pregnant normally end up in violent behaviors (Lipsey and Derzon, 1998).
Religious Factors
From the diverse past researches on the link between religion and social order, a number of proofs have been published to support the element of religion in achieving an orderly society where cases of juvenile deliquescent would rarely be reported. From these various researches, it has been reported that religion leads to the general well-being of the society, family and individuals. This will be shown in a number of dimensions as described below.
Religion and marriages- From past studies, religion has been proved to be a significant factor leading to stable marriages. In this regard, in such marriages, men, women and children have been able to have enhanced physical mental, emotional and intellectual health (Mosher and Handal, 1997). This one would mean that children, by virtue of the marriage, find themselves healthy thus having rare chances of involving with delinquent behaviors. This can be associated with other sociological studies that reveal that marriages that value religion and practice it normally experience greater stability (Mosher and Handal, 1997). But since lack of stability has also been reported as a major factor facilitating delinquent behavior in children, it means that children from families where religion is practices would rarely be involved in delinquent behaviors. In one research, it is quoted that “couples who recognize divine purpose in their marriage were more likely to collaborate and adjust to marital challenges” (Mosher and Handal, 1997). This would imply that; juvenile delinquency, as one of the family challenges, would be amicably addressed better than those families who do cannot collaborate or adjust due to lack of religious background and principles.
Religion and Divorce- It is a fact that divorce and family disintegrations have greatly contributed to juvenile delinquency as four out of every ten children are victims of this menace. According to sociological studies, it has been proved that families where religion is practiced and religious services are attended are less likely to be victims of divorce (Ellison et al., 1997). In this regard, where both spouses are religious, they are 2.4 times less likely to divorce than families where there is no religion, due to religious principles that are against such practice. This would therefore mean that children would be less exposed to psychological stresses attributed to family break-ups thus evading delinquent behaviors (Ellison et al., 1997).
Religion and family relations- According to Christopher (1995), in families where religious practices are given space show higher levels of family relations than those families that do not. In this regard, it is reported that both the mother and the father finds it something vital and normal to be close with their children in all circumstances so as to express the love needed by religious principles, like togetherness at meal time, recreational time, divine time and family work time (Christopher, 1995). In this process, these reserves show that child-parent freedom and understanding is increased. Consequently, it can be seen that parents will be able to freely interact with their children and would be able to know, in early stages, what exactly affects their children. This would mean that parents can address all problems that can push their children into deliquescent behaviors (Christopher, 1995).
Religion and domestic violence- In recent research finding, it is reported that men who, at least once in every week, attend religious services, are less likely to be involved in violence by 50% compared with those who do not (Kahoe, 1974). Similarly, empirical evaluations on domestic violence reported that religion had strong statistical inverse relationship with violence (Kahoe, 1974). This will mean that children from such societies or families will adopt non-violent behaviors as part of their behaviors hence reducing juvenile delinquent behaviors. However, this would be the reverse in non-religious societies or families.
Religion and Non Marital sex- It is true that high rate of non-marital sex has led increased rate of juvenile delinquency, especially among the young girls (Chandra and Ellison, 2001). On this note, with numerous past researches, it has been established that religion can lead to reduced attitudes towards involvement in non-marital sex practices. This is attributed to abstinence, faithfulness and purity principles in religions (Chandra and Ellison, 2001). Consequently, they adopt pessimistic behaviors and attitude towards pre-marital sex. Similarly, with researches on women across 30years old, it is revealed that participants from religious backgrounds oppose the issue of sex outside marriage (Chandra and Ellison, 2001). Analytically, it can be seen that religion can facilitate reduced cases of juvenile delinquency resulting from physical, psychological and emotional problems arising from young parenthood, which is also connected with adolescent sexual practices.
Religion, happiness and well-being- According to researches; those who are happy are like to abide by the law and productive (Byron, 2006). On the other hand, religion has been found to be a strong source of happiness and well-being in man. Therefore it would mean that in religious societies, children would tend to be more loyal and obedient to the law compared with those from non-religious societies (Byron, 2006). Similarly, the virtue of productivity normally evident in happy individuals would mean that children from religious societies will rarely dare causing damages to their people compared with those from non-religious societies. In other words it would imply reduce juvenile delinquency.
Religion with Stress, Self-esteem and Coping skills- Researches show that frequent attendance to religious functions predicts less cases of distress in an individual and still holds even for high school students (Downey, 1984). Similarly, more evidence is shown that belief in eternal life reduces harmful stresses that can result from jobs. This implies that loss of hope, which children can develop or learn from their parents or society is reduced hence reducing further on cases of delinquent behaviors since individuals have strong sense of self control (Downey, 1984). In addition, the 2001 study revealed that religion contributes by 65% to self-esteem and by 80% to social support (Brooks, 2004). This would mean that lack of self-esteem and social support, as factors that can lead to juvenile delinquency will be brought under control. On the coping skills, researches reveal that religion encourage people of same interests to be in combined prayers, religious functions, mutual support and always develop positive perceptions on their circumstances. Consequently, they will be able to cultivate positive coping skills in their children; a fact that will greatly help in evading juvenile delinquent behaviors.
Religion and Education- Poor academic performance, from various researches, have contributed to disorderly societies thus leading to juvenile delinquency (Edward, 1985). On this note, other researches also show that children who are religious right from their family backgrounds show positive academic performance (Edward, 1985). Similarly, parents with religious background show strong dedication towards their children’s success in education and in generally in life. This implies that such children would be less associated with disorderly behaviors resulting from psychological stresses on poor performance. On the other hand, religion, being a powerful coping factor in juveniles can really boost the spirit of success in poor performers. However, in societies and families with low or no religious background, children tend to perform poorly at schools; an indication of future disorderly conducts (Edward, 1985).
Religion and community- With religion, researchers have found that individuals develop the attitude of understanding one another, serving others and there is readiness to provide those who are really in need (David, 1993). Similarly, the culture of charity and compassion can also be traced to religious backgrounds. Therefore, it implies that such communities will be quite productive towards developing one another economically, socially and spiritually (David, 1993). However, since poverty is one factor that can lead to juvenile delinquency, it will therefore imply that religious communities would experience reduced rate of this social menace.
Religion and drug abuse and violent behavior- Religious teachings and principles do not permit the use of cigarettes, marijuana, alcohol and other drugs, which are associated with negative behaviors (Marvin, 1994). In this regard, researches have shown that individuals with religious backgrounds show reduced cases of drug use and violent behaviors. However, the reverse of this is true of individuals with no or weak religious backgrounds.
Abuse factors
The US Department of Health and Human Services [USDHHS] (2008) stated that there are about 900,000 children who have been neglected or abused for the year 2006, alone. The awful experiences of children who have been abused or neglected generate negative consequences on their daily lives that will be evident as they mature and grow older in life. These consequences may be physical, societal, behavioral, and psychological; among which psychological consequences pose the most risky behavior (McCord, Widom, & Crowell, 2001). Intertwined with the psychological consequence is the manifestation of the behavioral consequences and this includes juvenile delinquency (USDHHS, 2008).
Statistically, it has been found that abuse or neglected children were 11 times more likely to become juvenile offenders and three times more likely to be arrested for crimes either as a juvenile or as an adult (English, Widom & Brandford, 2004). Finley (2007) presented more specific data about gender and frequency of juveniles, emphasizing that the age group of 12 to 19 had the highest risk of being victims. According to Chesney-Lind and Shelden (1998), back in the early 2000, the black juvenile females have recorded the highest rate of involvement to various homicide cases. On the other hand, the juvenile males are more likely to be involved with gangs than the females, which could also make them more vulnerable to different kinds of danger or violence.
Sexual Abuse- This form of abuse is most evident in young girls under the age of 18 years old. In this case, various studies show that young girls normally involved in early sex due to poor economic backgrounds of either the society or the family or due to poor parenting cultures that expose the child to sexy attitudes (Holmes, James & Javad, 2001). Unfortunately, these young girls end up being pregnant and give birth to children. But since they are still young, they are not able to give the required parental care needed as well as cater for the cost of bringing up babies As a result such mothers end up in psychological, physical and emotional problems that automatically push them into juvenile behaviors like prostitution to get money and drug abuse to relieve their stressful life (Lipsey, and Derzon, 1998). On the other hand, it can be quite hard for these girls to come to terms with sexual abuse practices like rape. As a result, they can easily develop mental and psychological complications; a condition that has led to madness in some individuals (Lipsey, and Derzon, 1998). Therefore with madness, more disorderly conducts are always the result.
Psychological Abuse- This kind of abuse is mostly related to how parents or society treats children (Lipsey, and Derzon, 1998). With poor social relations and parenting skills, children have repeatedly found themselves victims of abusive words and practices from either their parents, members of the family or the society at large (Holmes, James & Javad, 2001). As a result, these hurting words or deeds sink and settle in the child’s brain. This makes children feel not valued and leads to loss of self-esteem (Lipsey, and Derzon, 1998). Once this occurred, most children unconsciously get mad to tolerate the situation thus leading to their defiant behaviors. In this regard, they have found themselves involved in drug use just to quench the emotional trauma resulting from psychological stresses (Lipsey, and Derzon, 1998). In such scenarios of drug use, researches reveal that their brain performance has greatly deteriorated; a condition that has further led to madness. So wi8th madness more violent behaviors are expected to be the order of such societies.
Physical abuse- in this case, most children find themselves overworked; a case that can force them run away from home (Lipsey, and Derzon, 1998). Once they are away from parents or guardians, especially the orphans, these children get extreme chances to meet other groups of children exposed to various cultures, practices and disorderly behaviors hence making them also assume such bad behaviors (Holmes, James & Javad, 2001). Similarly, poor disciplinary actions used by parents, teachers or society like corporal punishments has also led to these children running away thus getting greater chances of adopting defiant behaviors. On the same note, once they grow up, there is tendency that they will exactly practice such violent actions they experience in their childhood unto the society (Lipsey, and Derzon, 1998). In addition, some children have been involved in drug abuse just to make them forget the emotional pains they undergo whenever they still nurse body injuries they get from physical abuse. On the other hand, some physical abuse has led to brain injuries thus causing permanent brain damage that leads to madness (Lipsey, and Derzon, 1998). Consequently, such individuals start behaving in a manner that can be perceived as delinquent.
Gang factors
Many institutions have started gang prevention and intervention projects, enabling the whole community to be pro-active in taking part in promoting safe communities, healthy families, and positive youth development (Children’s Hospital Los Angeles, 2010).
These days, there are still numerous youth associated with gang members, suffered from trauma, troubled in school, and experimented with drugs. Such life events can easily sway them to go ahead the road of wrong doings. Yet, still there are these counseling, youth mentoring, after-school-activities, and case management to prevent youth students who are at high risks with the said acts (Children’s Hospital Los Angeles, 2010).
The Court Service Unit of Alexandria, Virginia (2008) enumerated the general common reasons of youth who join gangs:
1. status
2. friendship
3. attention and acceptance
4. involvement
5. support and mentoring
6. power
7. safety, security, or protection
8. peer pressure
9. material needs
Prevention of the said social deviances are generally supported by law enforcement and community involvement. The partnership, accompanied by constructive intervention, can be of effective defense against recruitment to gangs. Engagement to Parents and Teachers Assembly, religious organizations, schools, family, and other community institutions is what community involvement is all about. On the other hand, the involvement of law enforcers means coordination and agreement with the local and state law enforcement, most likely through the Office of the Attorney General (New Jersey State League of Municipalities, 2010).
Media factors
The media always has news reports regarding intimidations, robberies, gang murders, and the like, that looks like the occurrences are increasing to all systems of society (New Jersey State League of Municipalities, 2010).
Internet/Cyber world factors
Apart from above-mentioned actions, societal dangers for youth does not happen only in the streets. The cyberworld is also held liable for the deviances that the youth s of today undertake or get involved into. Even though new media has several potential advantages to youth – allows easy communication with friends and family; developing friendships; increase of knowledge, and other benefits – it still imposes potential risks too (Court Service Unit, 2010).
Embarrassment, harassment, or threats are what some youth have already experienced via electronic media. The digital age, indeed, adhere violence in a different form as well. Internet-bullying, electronic harassment and cyber bullying are the new terms used to characterize the said form of violence, and electronic aggression is what is used to coin the summation of all these cyber violence. Similar to traditional violence, electronic aggression is also related to misconducts and emotional problems at school as well (Court Service Unit, 2010).
Impact of Juvenile Offending
Impacts on Juvenile delinquent
Adolescents who become juvenile delinquents without proper intervention have been found to become career criminals in their adulthood. Such delinquents continue to exhibit antisocial behaviors and eventually become involved in violent and criminal acts. The early criminal and violent behaviors of juvenile delinquents also predisposes them to have lower educational attainment, school dropout, difficulties in interpersonal relationships, substance abuse, unemployment and aggression (Borduin & Schaffer, 1998). In this regard, such juveniles can also incur some expenses attributed to lost income, psychological care and health care. In addition, such victims normally incur expenses in the replacement of destroyed property. On this note, since such losses are normally incurred without prior planning or anticipation, the juvenile is normally deprived of freedom while still under probation (Elliot, Huizinga & Menard, 1989).
Impacts on State
The costs associated with the delivery of services for juvenile delinquents and its impact to juvenile offending have been steep and millions of state funding have been channeled into programs and services that have been proven ineffective (Aos et. al, 2004). Traditional interventions such as institutionalization, treatment programs and incarceration have not been able to curb rates of juvenile offending nor have it reformed juvenile delinquents (Strom, 2000). In fact, recent studies have found that institutions and incarceration have increased the likelihood of committing criminal and violent acts among juvenile delinquents after serving time in the said facilities (Wilson, 2000).
Impacts on Family
Whenever one thinks or remembers that one of his family members is a juvenile delinquent can strongly trigger serious emotional and psychological trauma thus leading to instability of the family (Barker, 2011). Similarly, during the time when the juvenile is held or waiting for court verdicts, his family normally undergoes various financial strains to see that they meet the juvenile’s needs as well as make the money available for lawyers to stand in his case. In addition, the ethical obligations charged with the juvenile’s family during his detention or probation period are also very disruptive, costly and can disorganize the whole operations in the family. For instance, the juvenile’s family will frequently be required to attend group counseling programs (Barker, 2011).
Impacts on community and Society
It has ever been proved that juvenile delinquency is closely linked to certain disorderly conducts like bad sexual behaviors, drug abuse, gang activities and other forms of violence. As a result, these issues normally make the community quite unsafe and threatening (Lipsey and Derzon, 1998). As a result large amounts of public money are being used to restore sanity instead of being used to develop the community (Miller, Cohen & Wiersema, 1996). On the same note, this behavior can normally leads to mass destruction of society properties since such juveniles normally act out of anger and unconsciousness.
Alternative Juvenile Intervention Programs
The increasing attention that failed juvenile intervention programs have been getting have also led to a reevaluation of the programs for juvenile delinquents. The focus was on determining an approach and a program that would effectively stop delinquents from committing further criminal behaviors. With governmental support, police and schools have come to work together to provide intervention programs designed to help students realize the reality of incarcerations, consequences for criminal behavior and the bleak future that awaits them if they continue with their delinquent behavior. This study aims to compare the effectiveness of two alternative intervention programs that have been implemented by the Sheriff’s office and in coordination with the local schools in the community.
Crossroads Program
The “Crossroads Tour” is designed to give the youth a “reality check” by having deputies and deputy coroners meet with the identified students to talk with them about their future. The participants will also tour the Alvin S. Glenn Detention Center and have a Real Talk Session and round table discussions about where their lives are headed. The “Crossroads Tour” comes on the heels of the training that School Resource Officers teach (Law Related Education) during the school year about issues that could lead a person to jail and shows them the harsh reality of jail life and where bad decisions can lead them.
The name “Crossroads” was chosen because it seemed most appropriate for those students heading down the wrong path. Meaning that it is up to them to choose which road they follow — will they proceed on the right side of the law or chose the bad? Parents are urged to take advantage of the opportunity that this tour offers, because it could assist in the decisions our youth make in the future. At present, the Crossroads” program have not been evaluated and although positive feedback on its impact on adolescents have been reported, an empirical evaluation is yet to be carried out.
Richland County, Educating, and Deterring Youth (R.E.A.D.Y)
The R.E.A.D.Y program is a type of behavior modification program that was created to direct juveniles from juvenile detention centers and adult facilities, even if they have had problems with the criminal system (Lott, 2010). Sheriff Lott and his staff recognized that a program to assist juveniles other than the juvenile system might help them differentiate any behaviors that may contribute to what appears to be delinquency and to change the juvenile’s negative path rather than sending them directly into the juvenile system (Lott, 2010).
The Crossroads program is aimed at students or adolescents that have been found to exhibit problem behaviors in the school and the community. The parents are informed of the program through their local community leaders and the recommendation from school officials they then give consent for their children to join the tour of the prison and the series of talks and discussions. The aim of the program is to change the behavior of the identified participants through informing them of the reality of jail and facing the consequences of their action. On the other hand, the R.E.A.D.Y program emphasizes the need for juvenile delinquents to have a second chance at an intervention program that would change their problem behaviors into a more constructive and positive one based on a series of psychological, emotional and behavioral modification sessions. The proposed study is directed at comparing and evaluating both programs in terms of its effectiveness, its psychological effects to the adolescent and the program aspects that needs improvement.
Nurse Home Visitation Program
This program aims at training and supervising registered nurses who are charged with the responsibility of visiting juveniles at their home settings (Olds et al., 1998). From what has been proved, this program has been proved effective based on its long term impacts as well as its portability. In attempts towards achieving its objectives, this program mainly targets those first-time young mothers who come from poor families. Normally, the identification of these pregnant females is started some months during the prenatal period then visitation continues for the next two years of the baby’s life. Here, the pattern used in approximating participants follows a selection of twenty homes. In these homes, nurses are expected to pay visits during which transportation services as well as services that link these young poor mothers to other necessary services they may require. In addition, they provide child care trainings as well as social skills to these first time mothers by following comprehensive protocol. In this regard, this program tries to solve juvenile cases arising from family factors and other social challenges associated with early pregnancy. Based on this reason, follow-up programs that have been conducted in New York and Elmira proves that the home nurse visits greatly reduce child abuse, child neglect and controls the rate at which children and mother grows due to reduced subsequent births or new birth cases. Finally, this program has proved to be less structured and less costly approach to juvenile delinquency that makes it be replicated in over 200 countries worldwide (Olds et al., 2004).
School-based-or-Class-Based Programs
There are quite a number of programs in this program collectively brought together to help address juvenile issues in institutionalized settings and has been proved quite feasible in controlling the use of drugs, anti-social behavior, delinquency, early school drop out and other unfavorable behaviors that can fuel criminal conducts among the youth (Gottfredson, Wilson, & Najaka, 2002). Though these institution-based programs may differ in goals, they normally share a number of themes. To start with, these programs employ collaborative planning as well as solve delinquent problems by integrating teachers, students, parents, administrators, as well as members of the community. Similarly, these programs group students into smaller clusters, educate on career issues, use integrated curriculum and involve students in the process of setting and enforcing school institution rules. For instance, Bullying Prevention program, within these programs has been successful in controlling drop out cases, improving school climate as well as controlling other forms of delinquency (Olweus and Mihalic, 1998). Similarly, STATUS program has been successful in improving the school climate fro both junior and senior students hence encourage positive learning attitude thus helping to control juvenile cases, drug use; negative peer pressure; drop out and has improved academic performance as well as social connections.
In addition, within these program is the STEP program. This program basically aims at reducing the complexities that the school environment can present to a student; improve support to both peer and teachers and reduce chances that can make a student be vulnerable to academic or emotional complexities (Gottfredson, 1990). This is achieved by restructuring the responsibilities of homeroom teacher to help students with behavioral problems improve. Once students in this program are grouped in the homerooms, the teacher is expected to take on extra role of counseling each group while assigning them core classes. This has been proved to result in reduced absenteeism, drop-out, improved academic performance and increased positive attitudes towards school.
IDDS Program Intensive Delinquency Diversion Service (IDDS)
The Intensive Delinquency Diversion Service (IDDS) is just an alternative program to the official juvenile justice system. However, it is meant to serve those juveniles who have been found guilty of minor crimes. Being on of the diversion programs, IDDS really targets those juveniles who may turn out to be very dangerous and chronic criminals if at all they do not receive early interventions. Ideally, treatment staff is developed within ten days of the child’s recruitment, which is expected to analyze the child’s needs and come up with logical plan on how to go about the needs on a daily basis.
Within factors to be considered are that the juvenile; might have been first-time offender at the age of fifteen years or below, lack parental attention, has drug abuse problem, has poor academic performance and is a gang affiliate among others. Closely tied to IDDS are other diversion programs like Boy and Girl Scouts, Civil Citation, Boy and Girl Clubs, JASP program and Teen Court. Just like these programs, IDDS program employs certain non-judicial authorities ranging from Curfews, restitutions, apology letters to the victims, referrals to local agencies, penalty on forfeiture of driving license, counseling on mental health or substance abuse, discouragement on socializing with inappropriate associations and community hours among others (Greenwood, 2004). In IDDS all males and females under the age of 18 years are targeted with more weight given to those at 16 year with expectation that counseling and education services offered at subsidized or no cost would positively change their behaviors thus deterring reoccurrence of delinquent behavior in the future (Latessa, Listwan & Hubbard, 2005).
Family Functioning Therapy
This is a family-based intervention program that targets juveniles between the age of eleven and eighteen who are struggling with delinquency, violence or substance abuse (Alexander et al., 1998). The FFT program is thus focused to change the family relationships and interactions that helps in adding value to the functioning of such families by improving the techniques of problem-solving, improve emotional relations and reinforcing the parents in providing the necessary guidance, structure and restrictions for the juveniles (Alexander et al., 1998). Basically, the program utilizes 4-8 therapists who operate under the supervision of more experienced fellow. With its three phases, FFT has been proved quite effective in handling juvenile delinquency. In this regard, first phase involves creating an environment that clears negative attitudes and beliefs that the family can have on the impossibilities of behavior change (Henigan et al., 2007). It further proceeds with an appreciation and respect for the family’s culture and value. In the second phase, the family members are shown new and desirable ways and skills on how to tackle various problems affecting their lives. This is done alongside the provision of some basic needs to help the family achieve her core goals in changing the behavior. Finally, phase three is just a motivation to the family members to transfer and apply the gained knowledge and experience in other social settings like school, churches and schools among others (Alexander et al., 1998).
Multi-Systemic Therapy (MST)
This is also family-based therapeutic program. In this regard, it is designed to support parents effectively address problems associated with youths in their families, which targets even the poor academic performers and deviant peers (Borduin, 1999). In an attempt to achieve empowerment of the family, MST program deals with those factors that present difficulties in achieving good parenting. In this regard, MST support family members create a local network of social support. Similarly, in an attempt of improving family collaborations and generalize on treatment, so that the targeted child may not be sensitive, this program is designed to be offered in school, home or specific community settings on a face-to-face approach (Henggler et al., 1998). In this regard, the program intensively locates and incorporates teachers, family members, school administrators, and other adults depending on the setting. It is distinct from other family program in that it is appropriate in emergency response cases. Based on past evaluations, MST has been proved effective controlling re-arrest cases among the juveniles and it has improved youth involvement in external placements like social services and juvenile justice.
Intensive Protection Supervision (IPS)
This is also a program designed for juveniles under probation who commit crime on non-serious grounds (Hawkins, Catalano & Brewer, 1995). In IPS, offenders are closely supervised by counselors who normally carry less caseload but are expected to increase his interaction level with the affected youths as well as their families (Chamberlain, 1998). In this regard, the counselor is expected to make very frequent visitations tm the youth at their home. During such home visits, he offers various supports, create personal service plan and organize on therapeutic or professional services as deem necessary. As result, this program has been helpful in reducing the number of juveniles who are referred to courts over this period of supervision or follow-up.
MTFC Program
The Multidimensional Treatment Foster Care program is one of the community-based intervention programs, which recruits community members and train them with an aim of each member taking one juvenile at a given time into their families or homes. In these trainings, parents are equipped with skills and methods of behavior management so as to enable the youth under their care have good structure as well as therapeutic environment. This goes long with family therapies for the biological members of the youth. After the completion of pre-service training, MTFC parents continue to appear at meetings organized by their managers for supervision reasons. In addition such supervisions are achieved through daily phone calls. In this program both foster and MTFC parents are paid (Lipsey and Wilson, 1998). However, the MTFC parents receive higher pay with increased responsibilities. For instance, MTFC parents are expected to be home whenever a child is also at home. Based on the random selections analysis, MTFC has greatly helped in reducing arrest cases among the juveniles who have delinquent conducts (Howell and Lipsey, 2004).
Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT)
This is a time-limited therapy that utilizes skill building instructions as well as homework assignments. It relies on the concept that; it is the thoughts exhibited in an individual, about what happens to them, that contributes to certain feelings, rather than such events (Lawrence et al., 2007). Therefore, the main aim of the program is to alter the thinking process of juveniles so that they develop positive attitudes in approaching life events rather than blaming on their life conditions. In this regard, new thinking patterns are created thus leading to the general development of such individuals. Therefore, the program require therapists to exactly identify the various goals of the youth then collectively help the juvenile adopt positive thinking pattern that will finally help the child achieve such goals (Lipsey, Landenberger & Wilson, 1997). In this program, there is aggression replacement training, which is more focused on changing associated risk factors, such as substance abuse and mental health problems among others, in CBT intervention (Reiss and Roth, 1997). In aggression replacement, anger control skills are exposed to the youth by first knowing its causes. Similarly, behavioral skills are explored where the youth is helped to develop series of pro-social techniques through role playing, modeling and performance feedback. Finally, aggression replacement entails moral reasoning, where the participants embark on cognitive conflicts in various problematic group discussions.
Recreational Programs
This program is designed to ensure that the unsupervised time when the youth are out of school is filled up thus reducing the loneliness, can lead to delinquent behaviors (David, Farrington & Brandon, 2007. On the other hand, this program attempts to deal with problems associated with psychological strains and emotional swings that can easily push juveniles to criminal delinquent behaviors (Elliot, 1997). From the previous researches on criminology, juvenile delinquency takes its peak at 3 pm. Thus makes recreational programs be assigned from 2 pm to 8 pm. Similarly, the program takes into consideration the various abilities and capabilities of the juveniles thus presenting activities like sport, rock climbing, bowling, music, drama, dancing, karate and art among others.
Ineffective Programs in Prevention and Intervention for Juvenile delinquency
D.A.R.E Program
According To Pfohl (1994), Drug Abuse Resistance Education (D.A.R.E) is one of the ineffective programs implemented in the past. Established in 1983 by the police department and Unified school district of Los Angeles, the D.A.R.E program emerged to be successful by then following the say from Lady Nancy “Say No” to drugs (Pfohl, 1994). This program employed 50,000 police personnel responsible for teaching the curriculum for the program that entailed anti-drug lectures in elementary schools (Pfohl, 1994). According to the past twenty evaluations on the D.A.R.E program, it has been repeatedly reported that this intervention program is quite ineffective since it only contributes to very small positive effects (Gottfredson et al., 2000)
In addition, with random assignment, three past researches have proved that this program is ineffective. As much as it has proved to be a failed intervention, D.A.R.E program still persist to be used in US due to the underlying philosophy of deterrence, which is believed to be effective in addressing the issue of juvenile delinquency.
Based on this philosophy, it is believed that instructional lecturing of the youngsters on the consequences of drug use, through the use of police officers, would deter the youth from using these drugs (Finckenaeur and Gavin, 1999)
Zero-Tolerance Policies
These are some of the social control policies, just like in the D.A.R.E’s case, relies on deterrent philosophy. It is believed that this program is a product of the juvenile justice system, which was also from criminal justice system during 1980s (Gottfredson et al., 2000). In these policies, each infringement of code of conducts in both children and adolescents is punishable. In some scenarios, these policies have been applied even in adults’ cases. In either case, police officers, in charge of implementing the punishments, have been seen violating and abusing people’s rights (Gottfredson et al., 2000). Consequently, people have developed rage, anger and distrust on its ineffectiveness as more parents become unable to control their children behaviors. In reaction to this, more stringent control measures have been incorporated to form part of policy making for the youngsters (Gottfredson et al., 2000).
This program, despite its ineffectiveness, finds widespread application in schools in the United States of America. In the school environment, the main aim of this program is to address threatening drugs, weapons or speech among the youth (Burns et al., 2002). In this regard, its ineffectiveness attributes to the immediate demand on punishing any violation of school rules, code of conduct or law. On this note, it is has been quite evident, just like in the past, that this program promote juvenile delinquency instead of taming it since students, in retaliating the involved officials, normally involve in shooting, assault or physical confrontation; a fact that has left school officials and teachers in death (Burns et al., 2002). Similarly, suspensions and expulsions practices in this policy program have just led to more defiant behaviors while these youths are out of schools and colleges. Similarly, due to inconsistent and incomplete implementation of the Zero-tolerance policies, both children as well as the youth turn out to see the involved authorities as uninformed and impulsive. This normally results into very poor bond between the students and teachers or school thus leading to poor social development.
Scared-Straight Programs
This approach to juvenile delinquency was established in the late 1970s by a collection of inmates in New Jersey national prison. In this program, both boys and girls who were brought into prisons were subjected to shock therapies (Finckenaeur and Gavin, 1999). In these therapies there were emotional shocks, threats, loud bullying, angry bullying, intimidations, as well as persuasions. The rationale behind all these was to scare them straight and out of delinquency. Due to its simplicity and deterrence, as many as 12,500 youngsters were able to visit this therapy in every year (Finckenaeur and Gavin, 1999). However, with past empirical evaluations on Scared Straight programs, it has been reported that it is quite ineffective. For instance, in a meta-analysis to evaluate the usefulness of juvenile delinquency programs, the deterrent category, which comprised Scared Straight programs and shock programs, reported that, on average, these programs, instead of reducing juvenile delinquency, further increased them by around 12% (Finckenaeur and Gavin, 1999).
However, this program tried surviving these failure findings by reducing the shock practices and embracing on educating the consequences of crime behaviors (Burns et al., 1999). Similarly, its survival has just been attributed to the media climate and political demands on juvenile intervention that mandates rough and tough measures against wayward behaviors in children and the youth (Finckenaeur and Gavin, 1999). Currently, to cover up its failure, various states and councils continue replicating this program so as to fit their social goals.
Boot Camps
These kinds of program, modeled after military induction, were first invented in the justice system of adult criminals in 1983. These programs were perceived as models of shock imprisonment based on a universal philosophy that the best way to deter future criminology is to expose the offenders to some form of punishment. However, with the completion of multisite evaluation of correctional boot camps programs in 1994, researchers concluded that there is no difference it makes in rectifying recidivism. Instead, with its old style of military approaches on discipline, drill as well as ceremony, the program does not effectively address juvenile delinquency nor does imprisonment in boot camps offer solutions to drug abuse among the youth. On this note, it has been reported that the practices revolving around this program normally associated with creation of high levels of anxiety in children, which turns out to be disabling (Burns et al., 1999).
Connecting this with major predictors of juvenile delinquency, which are stress and anxiety; instead of this program bringing relief to juvenile delinquency, it increases it. In addition, the programs’ ineffectiveness comes from the cost aspect of it making it be less beneficial to the tax payers (Hassiotis et al., 2001). On this note, it was reported that for every participants of boot camp program, the state must spend more than $15,000. In addition, with children who have histories of family abuse and violence, boot camps program caused more physical, emotional and psychological problems to them; a fact that contributes to negative impacts on juvenile behaviors after leaving the camp (Hassiotis et al., 2001). Moreover, on the extreme, these programs have reported deaths of children as in Maryland, which decided to close up its boot camps after death reports had been witnessed.
Summary
The R.E.A.D.Y Program and Crossroads Tour Program has had varied forms of implications to the society in addition to costs. The programs that were introduced have done much to alleviate these problems. In the 20th century that outsourcing juveniles began in different states in United States.
The juvenile risk factors are attributed the criminal activities to the society in which they interact with. Each social group has its factors that contribute to this kind of trait. These risk factors come about as a result of the environment they are exposed to (CJCJ, 2011). Another factor that contributes to the juvenile sort of behaviour is the community factors which are accorded the task of nurturing the child. As the child grows up he or she comes up in a family, the basic unit, which is meant to address certain issues for his well-being, hence family factors are necessary aspect. The schools factors are meant to address the behaviour of the child through schools rules and regulations. Individual factors arise due to several factors; physiological, genetic among other issues. The major factor are to the juvenile behaviour is drug factors which they start a young age. The religious factors are accorded to instill good behaviour in the children as they grow up and in the social entities established like marriages and marital sex among others. Abuse factors are attributed to ill manner form of behaviour they experience as they grow up which are sexual abuse, physiological abuse, and physical abuse. Another factor is gang, which is the company the children get hooked up with and acquire ill behaviour. The media and internet factors are the news the children are allowed access to and develop this behaviour.
The juvenile have had numerous implications on various aspects like the juvenile delinquent, the state, the family and the community and society. The alternative juvenile programs have arisen result of reevaluation like crossroads program, the R.E.A.D.Y program, Nurse Home Visitation Program, school based programs, Intensive Protection Supervision (IPS) and Intensive Delinquency Diversion Service program. There are also family based programs; Family Functioning Therapy, Multi-Systemic Therapy (MST). Other programs include; MTFC Program, Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT), and Recreational Programs. There are however other programs that are not effective like the D.A.R.E Program, social policies like Zero-Tolerance Policies, Scared-Straight Programs, and Boot Camps. These Juvenile programs for them to be successful need to apply an effective methodology.
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