Unequal rights experienced by minority groups in the United States
Introduction
Racial transformations in the last two decades are preventing any hope of realizing the civil rights victory of seeing the end of racial injustices in the United States. The U.S. is facing serious racial problems, as there is an increase in the social isolation of minority groups within the cities, an increase in unemployment, provision of health services, and other economic dislocations. [1],[2] The goal of this research is to create an understanding of the cause of the unequal rights of minority groups in the U.S. society, by examining the meaning and history of the definition of minority and majority groups. The research will use a review of literature to support the premise that unequal rights of minority groups still exist in the society.
Differences in racial and ethnic group cause the unequal distribution of resources, power, prestige, and worth. The main reason for this unequal power by the majority group is in their possession of superior numbers, weapons, property, technology, and economic resources.[3] These are ethnicity, religious preferences, races, age, and even sex. Since, the determination of equality of groups is due to the terms minority and majority of power, this research will define the role the terms represent, while seeking to find evidence in history for the rise of unequal rights of groups.[4]([i])
The term minority to describe a group of people is a historical legacy, with roots in the 12th century. The United National Sub-commission on Prevention and Protection of Minorities define the term those individuals in a group that is not dominant in the society that is the preserve of the stable religious, ethnic, and linguistic characteristics.[5] Louis Wirth identifies that in history the definition of minority is therefore a term that has different key ideas used to determine the classification of a person in this group.[6]([ii]) The definition also implies that minority groups are the product of the definition of cultural characteristics, which include religion, language, accent, or parentage.[7] Therefore, culturally the minority will pass as a member of the major group if they can change their name, adopt the majority’s culture, and loose the accent. Therefore, the term minority is that inferior group of people whose inferior social position does not reflect their interest properly in the economic, political, and social institutions of our societies.[8]
The second cause and definition of minority is the social stratification, which has determined the minority status. The majority group’s possession of unequal share of the social resources like goods, privileges, and services, leaving the minority with less desirable resources, leads to social stratification of the minority.[9] This social stratification is not a product of America’s colonial era, but is a product of the European social system. The racial hierarchy that causes minority groups is the product of Europe’s white group origins, which were at the top of the people of color, and served the society in certain functions.[10] The reason for this stratification was to ensure that the elite enjoyed certain social benefits, like having people to carry out dirty work and under low wages to earn profits. The social stratification was a source of social advantage for the majority group as it “enables the powerful to retain their control and their advantage,” and it “offers better occupational opportunities, income, and education to white people.”[11] Therefore, in this sense, the allegations of minority characteristics become an ideology to the majority.[12]([iii]) The problem with this social stratification is that it has led members of the minority group to regard themselves as objects of social discrimination, due to the sense identity instilled in them. This implies that minority and unequal rights of minority groups is the product of our society’s sense of identity, or it is the product of our “consciousness of kind.” Based on this conclusion, this research shall review literature on the social issues and unequal rights minority groups experience in the U.S.
Literature Review
A review of literature shows that the contemporary American society is dotted with many problems associated with the unequal social position of minorities. Though the nation is wealthy, prosperous and a world power, it is a society with white majority enjoying disproportional privileges.[13] The research indicates that the nation has the highest inequality in wealth and income in the world, while minority groups, especially the African Americans are yet to enjoy the full economic, social, and political equality.[14] However, this does not mean other minority groups like the Latinos, American Indians, or Asian Americans do not suffer the same discrimination and prejudice. The consensus in literature indicates that the African American community bears the most severe burden of their absolute numbers and size of families, as they face extremely high levels of poverty. As many white Americans continue to enjoy the benefits of the “American Dream,” the dream seems to have bypassed African American, and their minority counterparts.[15]
Apart from employment and salaries, another area in which unequal rights are predominant is in the healthcare system. Research indicates that racial and ethnic minority groups experience disparities in the access to quality mental health, like the underutilization of psychiatric services, issues with treatment engagement, retention of persons, over diagnosis of schizophrenia and depression and inappropriate administration of anti-psychiatric medication.[16]([iv]) Moreover, the study also indicates that disparities in the provision, access to quality healthcare are also in other areas of medicine. The racial and ethnic minority groups have lower life expectancy. They also have higher infant mortality rates especially among African Americans, higher diabetes rates among Latinos, African Americans, and the Native Americans.[17] The indication is that the racial and ethnic minority groups experience barriers to access of insurance and medical cover, or have inadequate insurance coverage, in effective assessment and stereotyping in the medical field, language barriers and lack of effective communication.[18] Other factors involved are the lack of medication, and communication of medical use, and the racial and racial identity factor influenced by the social stratification aspect.
Unequal rights and opportunities are also prevalent in the education sector, as the racial and ethnic minority groups face prejudice and discrimination, despite the setting up of laws like the “No Child Left behind Act.” The inability of the education system to afford equal opportunity to minority groups is associated to several factors prevalent in the society. Inequality is receiving equal opportunity education is the result of the ongoing racial segregation in the society. This is because statistics indicate the racial and ethnic minority groups; especially the Blacks and Latino students are facing more educational segregation than two decades ago.[19]([v]) In addition, racial and ethnic minority groups suffer from unequal distribution in school resources. This is because the education system has the markings of race and class segregation in the allocation of revenues, such that students from high-poverty racial segregated schools do not get to experience high-quality curricula, social networks, and high-qualified teachers as those in wealthier and dominant communities. Unfortunately, the wealthiest U.S. school districts make up 10% of the schools in America, yet they spend nearly 10 times the expenditure of the poorest school districts.[20] It is unfortunate that the disparities occur considering the creation of equal opportunity education in the “No Child Left behind Act.” The causes and consequences of inequality in the education system are seeing racial and ethnic minority groups receiving differential teacher quality. Schools that have predominately minority groups have limited language, English proficiency and those from low-income families tend to receive teachers with lower test scores.[21] Moreover, inequality is also in the treatment and discipline given to minority children. Studies show that students from racial and ethnic minority groups are more likely to receive harsh discipline as compared to their white counterparts for a similar offense.[22]([vi]) Unfortunately, this inequality in the education system is causing students from racial and ethnic minority groups to achieve lower and higher differential achievement levels with the white majority community. Moreover, the students of color also have higher differential completion rates. This is because the graduation rate from high school is lower for this community as 87% of African Americans, 52% of Native Americans, and 62% of Hispanics get to complete high school. Consequently, the minority groups end up facing higher differentials when accessing quality higher education. Asian and white communities represent the highest proportion of students who complete higher education as compared to Latinos, Native Americans, and African Americans.
Such experiences of the racial and ethnic minority groups indicate that the aim of the civil rights movement is far from attainment. This is because “the aim of the minority group rights is the preservation of such identities.”[23] The reason for the inequality of the rights of minority groups is not only a social and cultural element, but is also the result of political dynamics.[24] The principal causes identified by literature are the misunderstanding of the basis and aim of minority groups’ rights by multiculturalism and bifurcation of politics.[25] It is the belief that the questions surrounding the justices of the rights of the disadvantaged cultural and racial groups emerged within the context of the disagreement between the Canadian and U.S. liberal political theory. The liberal theory is believed to be the cause of the issue of culture and race as ideal theories within politics. The argument for ideal liberalists is that under ideal justice, racial and cultural differential is not appropriate to define temporary rights of groups as a means of overcoming the historical injustices faced by the groups. However, the Canadian liberalist or multiculturalism identified that some minority group rights, were not temporary compensations, but were permanent features of the society.[26] The claim was that a person’s national race and culture were necessary in their ability to exercise basic liberal values like autonomy and freedom, according to the political privileges of cultures, languages, and identities of the dominant groups. The definition of this political privilege was in terms of a fair coexistence where the requirement of the society was that the cultural minorities could express and preserve their cultures. The split between the two schools of thought, led to the different political opinions that defend the minority group of rights or those bent on the preservation of the culture and collective identities. It is the belief that the disparities caused by liberal and multiculturalism because the shift in equality for minority groups rights, which are reflected in many administrative arms of politics.
An area predominately associated with the lack of equal rights for racial and ethnic minority groups is the judicial system. Recent studies try to investigate whether the increase in the number of black elite in both the electoral process and judicial system, would support the change in attitudes of minority groups as well as the larger majority white community.[27] This is because the goal of the civil rights movements was to have the securing of minority representation as a means to guarantee some degree of power or a voice for those who can otherwise face exclusion by the majority. In a society that is still facing by racism, discrimination, and classism it has become increasingly difficult to achieve this voice even in the most theoretical guaranteed sectors like the judicial system. The expectation of the civil rights movement was that the voices of the minority would bear benefits, but the legal system has failed for it mal-distributes burdens and benefits in the representation of minorities.
It is for these reasons that studies currently try to investigate if the current increase in colored and Black judicial officials has changed the public attitude especially of the minority groups towards the judicial and administrative system. The focus of such studies has been to investigate if the public has changed its perception of the system in terms of how the judicial system treats and handles persons from minority groups. The focus has been on discrimination and justice in matters like jurisprudence, the fairness of judges, impartiality of the judicial system, and the equity of sentences.[28] This is because the public often felt that the judicial system was unsatisfactory in the providing access to justice, independent, timeliness, equity, accountable, and fair justice especially for the minority groups.[29]([vii]) The results of such surveys indicate that the trend has not changed as more than 68% of African Americans felt they were still treated differently from white people, with 45% of the white community agreeing with this response. The surveys further show that the police force also perpetuates unequal rights of minority groups, since they are the enforcers of the law. This is mostly with the distribution of police resources to neighborhoods, and the application of police discretional policies like the “Stop and Frisk” rule.[30]
Discussion and Conclusion
From the review of literature, this analysis finds that that though the social picture indicates that the minority and predominant white Americans are nearly equal; there are inherent prejudice and discriminations issues. The system of inequality is a perpetuation and maintenance of the social forces that denote minority status. The minority has distinct cultural and physical characteristics, used to remind them of their differences from the major group. Such characteristics are in skin color, disability, or facial features. It is important to point out that distinct physical and cultural traits of the majority and minority groups are the basis for judgment of the minority group, are use to justify the unequal treatment still prevalent in this society.
Therefore, the unequal rights of minority groups are associated with the historical and cultural embedded unequal social, political, and economic rights of the minority population, leading to the unfair distribution of jobs and salaries. Moreover, it is apparent that there is inequality in the access and to quality of healthcare is associated with unequal social rights of minority groups. The unequal rights of minority groups in the society are reflections on the healthcare, employment systems, as well as the educational sector. This inequality explains the disparities in the distribution of resources, the low achievement rates among minority groups, high dropout rates, and low continuation to higher education. It is the perception of this analysis that these reflections are the reactions of our social systems to deep-rooted social and cultural description of minority. The community may pride in advances and achievement of equal rights for all following the election of President Barrack Obama, it is the opinion that America is still grappling with social, cultural, political, and economic description of minorities. These definitions are the cause for the injustice and discrimination of the rights of minority groups in the society and the judicial system.
References
AECF, “Unequal Opportunities in Education: Race Matters,” AECF Fact Sheets, 2012, http://www.aecf.org/upload/publicationfiles/fact_sheet3.pdf.
Atdjian Sylvia, and Vega William A. “Disparities in Mental Health Treatment in U.S. Racial and Ethnic Minority Groups: Implications for Psychiatrists,” Psychiatric Services, 56.12 (December 2005), p.1176.
Brown, D.A., Fighting racism in the 21st century,” Washington and Lee law review vol. 61, 2004, pp. 1485.
Dunnaville, Clarence M. Jr., “Unequal Justice Under the Law-Racial Inequities in the Justice System,” Virginia Law Review, American Sociological Association – Department Of Research And Development (December 2000), p.20.
Eitzen Stanley, Maxine Baca Z., an Smith Eitzen K., Social Problems, Census Update, 12th ed., USA; Pearson Education, 2012.
Eppich, Andrew. “Wolf at the Door: Issues of Place and Race in the use of the “Knock and Talk” Policing Technique.” Boston College Journal of Law & Social Justice 32, no. 1 (2012): 119-50
Hooker Juliet, Race, and the Politics of Solidarity, New York, NY: Oxford University Press, Inc. 2009.
Johnson, Tammy (ed.), Race, Education and No Child Left Behind, Applied Research Center, 2003, p.23.
Lankford et. al. 2002. “Teacher Sorting and the Plight of Urban Schools”, Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis; p.37.
Marvin, Overby L., Brown Robert D., Bruce John M., Smith Charles E. Jr., and Winkle John W. III “Race, Political Empowerment, and Minority Perceptions of Judicial Fairness,” Social Science Quarterly, Blackwell Publishing Limited, 86.2 (Jun 2005), p. 444.
Shepard Jon, Cengage Advantage: Sociology. 11th ed., Wadsworth, Cengage Learning, 2010
Steinberg Shirley R., Diversity and Multiculturalism: A Reader. New York, NY: Peter Lang Publishing, 2009.
[1] Eitzen Stanley et al., Social Problems, Census Update, USA; Pearson Education, 2012, p.208.
[2] Shepard John, Cengage Advantage: Sociology, CengageBrain, 2010, p.238.
[3] Eitzen Stanley et al., Social Problems, Census Update, USA; Pearson Education, 2012, p.208.
[4] Ibid.,
[5] Steinberg Shirley, Diversity and Multiculturalism: A Reader, p. 124.
[6] Shepard Jon M., Cengage Advantage: Sociology, Cengage, 2010, p.238.
[7] Ibid.,
[8] Eitzen Stanley et al., Social Problems, Census Update, USA; Pearson Education, 2012, p.209.
[9] Shepard Jon, (Cengage Advantage: Sociology), 2010, p.238.
[10] Eitzen Stanley et al., Social Problems, Census Update, USA; Pearson Education, 2012, p.209.
[11] Eitzen Stanley et al., Social Problems, Census Update, USA; Pearson Education, 2012, p.209.
[12] Shepard Jon,(Cengage Advantage: Sociology) p.238.
[13] Brown, D.A., Fighting racism in the 21st century,” Washington and Lee law review vol. 61, 2004, pp. 1485.
[14] Eitzen Stanley et al., Social Problems, Census Update, USA; Pearson Education, 2012, p.211.
[15] Brown, D.A., Fighting racism in the 21st century,” Washington and Lee law review vol. 61, 2004, pp. 1485.
[16] Atdjian Sylvia, and Vega William A. “Disparities in Mental Health Treatment in U.S. Racial and Ethnic Minority Groups: Implications for Psychiatrists,” Psychiatric Services, 56.12 (December 2005), p.1176.
[17] Atdjian Sylvia, and Vega William A. “Disparities in Mental Health Treatment in U.S. Racial and Ethnic Minority Groups: Implications for Psychiatrists,” Psychiatric Services, 56.12 (December 2005), p.1176.
[18] Ibid., p.1177.
[19] AECF, “Unequal Opportunities in Education: Race Matters,” AECF Fact Sheets, 2012, p.1.
[20] Johnson, Tammy (ed.), Race, Education and No Child Left Behind, Applied Research Center, 2003, p.23.
[21] Lankford et. al. 2002. “Teacher Sorting and the Plight of Urban Schools”, Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis; p.37.
[22] AECF, “Unequal Opportunities in Education: Race Matters,” AECF Fact Sheets, 2012, p.1.
[23] Hooker Juliet, Race and the Politics of Solidarity, p.96.
[24] Ibid., p.95.
[25] Ibid.
[26] Ibid.
[27] Marvin, Overby L., Brown Robert D., Bruce John M., Smith Charles E. Jr., and Winkle John W. III “Race, Political Empowerment, and Minority Perceptions of Judicial Fairness,” Social Science Quarterly, Blackwell Publishing Limited, 86.2 (Jun 2005), p. 444.
[28] Ibid.
[29] Dunnaville, Clarence M. Jr., “Unequal Justice Under the Law-Racial Inequities in the Justice System,” Virginia Law Review, American Sociological Association – Department Of Research And Development (December 2000), p.20.
[30] Eppich, Andrew. “Wolf at the Door: Issues of Place and Race in the use of the “Knock and Talk” Policing Technique.” Boston College Journal of Law & Social Justice 32, no. 1 (2012): p. 119.
[i] Id, Eitzen Stanley et al., Social Problems, Census Update, USA; Pearson Education, 2012, p.208.
[ii] “We may define a minority as a group of people who, because of their physical or cultural characteristics, are singled out from the others in the society in which they live for differential and unequal treatment, and who therefore regard themselves as objects of collective discrimination. The existence of a minority in a society implies the existence of a corresponding dominant group with higher social status and greater privileges. Minority carries with it the exclusion from full participation in the life of the society (Wirth 1945:347)” (Shepard Jon M., Cengage Advantage: Sociology, Cengage, 2010, p.238).
[iii] “a set of ideas used to justify and defend the interests and actions of those in power (Eagleton 1994)” (Shepard Jon,(Cengage Advantage: Sociology) p.238.
[iv] “There is documented evidence that there are disparities in the treatment and health status of members of the American ethnic and racial minority groups, as indicated by the Institute of Medicine, the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, the Surgeon General, and the President’s New Freedom Commission on Mental Health”(Atdjian Sylvia, and Vega William A. “Disparities in Mental Health Treatment in U.S. Racial and Ethnic Minority Groups: Implications for Psychiatrists,” Psychiatric Services, 56.12 (December 2005), p.1176.)
[v] “Data from the 2002-2003 school year show that in Chicago alone, 87% of public-school enrollment was Black and Hispanic; less than 10% of children in the schools were white. In Washington, D.C., 94% of children were black or Hispanic; less than 5% were white. In St. Louis, 82% of the student population was Black or Hispanic, in Philadelphia and Cleveland, 79%, in Los Angeles, 84%, in Detroit 96%, in Baltimore 89%.”( AECF, “Unequal Opportunities in Education: Race Matters,” AECF Fact Sheets, 2012, p.1).
[vi] “14.6 percent of White students had been suspended or expelled in grades seven through twelve compared to 38.2 percent Native Americans, 35.1 percent of African Americans and 19.6 percent of Latinos. One study found that Black students are sanctioned for more subjectively determined infractions. Racial disparities drop dramatically when the offense is determined more objectively, such as with weapon or drug possession” (AECF, “Unequal Opportunities in Education: Race Matters,” AECF Fact Sheets, 2012, p.1.)
[vii] In early 1999, 1,826 citizens were asked to give their opinions regarding the Courts in their communities. This survey, entitled “How the Public Views State Courts,” was conducted by the National Center for State Courts.
